Society and Culture in Early Medieval India

At a Glance

• Period Roughly 800 to 1200
• Caste change Brahmans up, Shudras elevated, antyajas down
• New groups Rajputs and Kayasthas
• Women Property rights grew; education and freedom narrowed
• Religion Hindu revival, bhakti, tantra, decline of Buddhism and Jainism
• Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: Early Medieval Period

Where Does It Fit?

This is the seventeenth topic of the category on the early medieval period. The previous topic described feudal society, and this topic covers its social and cultural life. The next topic covers the economy and the debate about trade in the same age. Previous topic: Indian Feudalism – Origin and Features in Early Medieval India. The earlier changes are in Changes in the Varna System and Rise of Regional Identities.

How Did the Caste System Change?

In short: early medieval society kept the caste system as its base, but Brahmans gained wealth and power, new groups such as Rajputs and Kayasthas rose, and the position of the lowest groups worsened.

Rulers in Bengal, Sindh and the south invited Brahmans and gave them rent-free land, and Brahmans expanded cultivation and acted as revenue officials, ministers and accountants. Some law writers argued that the ancient Kshatriyas had disappeared and the Vaishyas had sunk to the status of Shudras, so only Brahmans were twice-born. This did not match social reality, since rich merchants and landed chiefs existed. The Rajputs rose as a new section leading clans, and the Kayasthas, who had been people of different castes working in royal offices, grew into a distinct caste.

Hinduism absorbed many Buddhists, Jains, indigenous tribes and foreigners such as the Hunas. These groups formed new castes and sub-castes, and often kept their own customs, so society became more complex.

What Was the Position of Shudras, Dalits and Slaves?

The historian D.C. Sircar describes the period as one of gradual elevation of the Shudras, who became eligible for smarta rites though still barred from studying the Vedas. As agriculture expanded, many tribals joined this group. The Jats, a pastoral tribe of Sindh, moved to Punjab and became farmer-warriors, formally Shudras but ranking themselves with the Rajputs. Marriage between higher castes and Shudras was frowned on but happened, and the mixed unions were called anuloma and pratiloma.

The position of the Dalits, then called antyaja or untouchables, got worse. They did scavenging, skinning and shoe-making, lived apart from the upper castes, and in most areas could not own cultivated land. Slavery also existed, since prisoners of war and debtors could be sold, and starving farmers sold themselves in famines. There were no systematic slave raids, and a slave who saved his master’s life became free.

What Was the Condition of Women?

How Did People Dress, Eat and Amuse Themselves?

The dhoti and sari stayed the normal dress, with the jacket and bodice in the north, and cotton was most common, though the rich used silk and fine muslin. Arab and Chinese visitors noted a fondness for ornaments. Vegetarianism was the rule in many areas, though the law books list lawful meat. Wine was drunk at feasts and marriages, even though Arab writers praised Indians for avoiding intoxicants. Town people enjoyed fairs, excursions, animal fights and wrestling, and the upper classes liked dicing, hunting and a form of polo.

How Did Religion Change?

The period saw a revival of Hinduism and a continuing decline of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhism was confined to eastern India and, as it took up mantras and secret rites, became hard to tell from tantric Hinduism. Jainism stayed strong among traders, with the Dilwara temples at Mount Abu and the Gomateswara statue at Sravana Belgola, about 18 metres high. Shiva and Vishnu became the chief gods, and local and tribal gods were attached to them.

Two popular movements ignored caste: tantra in the north and bhakti in the south under the Nayanmars and Alvars, who spoke in Tamil. Sankara reformulated Vedanta as advaita, and Ramanuja in the eleventh century built a bridge between bhakti and the Vedic tradition. The Lingayat movement arose in the twelfth century and opposed caste. The writer al-Biruni, who spent about ten years in India in the early eleventh century, praised Indian learning but noted the Brahmans’ unwillingness to share knowledge.

Why Is This Topic Important?

• Social base Explains the caste and gender order the Turkish conquerors found
• Religion Sets the ground for bhakti and Sufism
• New groups Rajputs and Kayasthas appear often in the exam

What Came Next?

The next topic covers the economy of the age and the debate over the decline of trade. Next topic: Economy and Decline of Trade in Early Medieval India.

Key People and Terms

• Antyaja Untouchable, the fifth social grade
• Kayastha Caste of officials and writers
• Anuloma Marriage of high-caste man with lower-caste woman
• Pratiloma Marriage of low-caste man with high-caste woman
• Tantra Open to all castes
• Advaita Sankara’s non-dualism

Exam Corner

Mains Angle

Questions on this era cover caste, women and religion. These points add depth.

• Caste Brahman power, new groups, fall of the lowest
• Women Property rights but restricted education
• Religion Revival of Hinduism, bhakti and tantra