Mahmud of Ghazni’s Invasions of India
Medieval History › Early Medieval Period · Topic 1.20
Mahmud of Ghazni, who ruled from 998 to 1030, is said to have made seventeen raids into India. He first destroyed the Hindushahi power in Punjab, then plundered Mathura and Kanauj in 1018 and Somnath in 1025. He annexed only Punjab and Multan, but the Ghaznavid conquest opened the Gangetic plain to later Turkish invaders.
6 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Early Medieval Period
At a Glance
- Ruler of Ghazni 998 to 1030
- Raids Said to be seventeen
- Main targets Hindushahis, Mathura, Kanauj, Somnath
- Annexed Punjab and Multan only
- Court poet Firdausi, author of the Shah Namah
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: Early Medieval Period
Where Does It Fit?
This is the twentieth topic of the category on the early medieval period. The previous topic covered the Arab conquest of Sindh, and this topic describes the next Muslim incursion, which came from the Turks of Ghazni. The next topic covers Muhammad Ghori, who completed the conquest. Previous topic: Arab Conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim (712 AD).
Who Was Mahmud of Ghazni?
In short: Mahmud of Ghazni was a Turkish sultan who defended the Islamic lands of Central Asia and raided India repeatedly for treasure, and in India he is remembered as a plunderer of temples.
Towards the end of the ninth century the Samanids, Iranians by descent, ruled Khurasan and Transoxiana. A Turkish slave governor, Alp-tigin, set up an independent kingdom with its capital at Ghazni, and the Ghaznavids took over the defence of the Islamic lands against the Turkish tribes of Central Asia. Mahmud came to the throne in 998 and ruled until 1030. Medieval Muslim historians treat him as a hero of Islam because of his defence against the Turkish tribes, and the ghazi spirit increased in his reign. He was also tied to the Iranian renaissance. His court poet Firdausi wrote the Shah Namah, and Persian language and culture became those of the Ghaznavid empire, so the Turks became Persianised as well as Islamised.
How Did Mahmud Defeat the Hindushahis?
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| About 990 to 991 | Sabuk-tigin defeats the Shahis, and Kabul and Jalalabad are annexed to Ghazni |
| 1001 | Mahmud defeats Jayapala near Peshawar; the land west of the Indus is ceded |
| 1009 | Anandpala is defeated near the Indus; Mahmud ravages Nandana in the Salt Ranges |
| 1015 | Mahmud plunders Lahore and ousts Anandpala; the Ghaznavid frontier reaches the Jhelum |
The Hindushahi rulers held Peshawar and the Punjab from their capital at Waihind. Jayapala had formed a coalition with the Bhatti ruler of Multan and the amir of Multan and invaded Ghazni, but was defeated. According to later accounts Jayapala entered a funeral pyre after his defeat, though the story that Mahmud captured and released him seems doubtful. The Shahis fought almost alone, since the Rajput rulers sent no help, although the seventeenth-century historian Ferishta wrongly claims they did. Ajmer had not been founded then, and Delhi was a small state. An attack on Kashmir in 1015 failed because of the weather.
Which Raids Did He Make in the Ganga Valley and Gujarat?
By 1015 Mahmud was ready to attack the Indo-Gangetic plain. His raids were meant to plunder the rich temples and towns that had gathered wealth over generations, and the wealth funded his wars in Central Asia. He kept the Indian princes from regrouping, used ghazis who came for plunder, and posed as a shikan, or destroyer of images, for the glory of Islam. He raided Thanesar, then made his most daring raids on Kanauj in 1018, when he sacked Mathura and Kanauj, and on Somnath in Gujarat in 1025. He also invaded Kalinjar in Bundelkhand. No strong state existed in north India to stop him, and he made no attempt to annex these regions.
In 1025 he marched through Multan and Jaisalmer with a cavalry force of 30,000 to Somnath, a rich temple that drew lakhs of pilgrims and a rich port. The commander of the city fled, but the citizens put up stout resistance. Mahmud broke the Shivalinga and took parts of it to Ghazni, evaded Rajput attempts to block his return, and had to fight the Jats in Sindh. He returned the next year to punish them and died at Ghazni in 1030.
How Should Mahmud Be Assessed?
Historians caution that Mahmud should not be dismissed as only a raider. The Ghaznavid conquest of the Punjab and Multan changed the political situation, since the Turks had crossed the mountains that guarded India and could attempt the Gangetic heartland whenever they chose. They did not do so for the next 150 years because of changes in Central Asia and in north India. After Mahmud’s death the Seljuk empire arose and defeated his son Masud, who fled to Lahore, and the Ghaznavid empire shrank to Ghazni and the Punjab. Meanwhile, new states in north India grew strong enough to resist the Ghaznavid raids.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Prelims staple Dates of Peshawar 1001, Kanauj 1018 and Somnath 1025 are often asked
- Turn in history Ghaznavid control of Punjab gave a base for later invaders
- Historiography Shows the difference between Indian and Persian views of Mahmud
What Came Next?
The next topic covers Muhammad Ghori, who unlike Mahmud aimed to establish rule in India. Next topic: Muhammad Ghori’s Conquest of North India.
Key People and Terms
- Ghazi Warrior fighting for the faith
- Jayapala Hindushahi ruler defeated in 1001
- Anandpala Hindushahi successor defeated in 1009
- Firdausi Poet of the Shah Namah
- Shikan Destroyer of images
- Waihind Hindushahi capital
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Mahmud ruled 998 to 1030; seventeen raids.
- Peshawar 1001: Jayapala defeated.
- Kanauj 1018; Somnath 1025.
- Only Punjab and Multan were annexed.
- Firdausi wrote the Shah Namah at his court.
Do Not Confuse With
- Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori Raider of the eleventh century versus the conqueror of the twelfth
- Jayapala and Anandpala Father defeated in 1001 versus son defeated in 1009
- Somnath 1025 and Kanauj 1018 Gujarat temple raid versus the Ganga valley raid
Memory Hook
Peshawar 1001, Kanauj 1018, Somnath 1025, then home to Ghazni.
Mains Angle
Questions on Mahmud ask whether he was a raider or a ruler. These points add depth.
- Motive Plunder to fund Central Asian wars, plus the ghazi ideal
- Method Fast cavalry raids without annexation
- Effect Punjab lost and the door opened
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Assess the aims and consequences of Mahmud of Ghazni’s raids on India.”
How to Answer
- Background Ghaznavid state and ghazi spirit.
- Raids Hindushahis, Kanauj, Somnath.
- Aim Wealth and prestige.
- Result Annexation of Punjab and weakness of Indian states.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
How many times did Mahmud of Ghazni raid India?
Mahmud is said to have made seventeen raids into India. The early ones were against the Hindushahi rulers of Peshawar and Punjab, and the later ones were plundering expeditions into the Ganga valley and to Somnath in Gujarat.
Why did Mahmud of Ghazni attack Somnath in 1025?
Somnath had a fabulously rich temple and attracted lakhs of pilgrims, and it was also a rich port. The raid also aimed to create awe among the Rajputs, since Mahmud marched through Multan and Jaisalmer with a regular cavalry of 30,000.
Which territories did Mahmud annex in India?
Mahmud annexed the Punjab up to the Jhelum and Multan, but he made no attempt to annex other places he raided, such as Kanauj, Mathura or Somnath. The Ghaznavids held Lahore and the Punjab for over a century afterwards.
Who was Jayapala?
Jayapala was the Hindushahi ruler of Peshawar and the Punjab, whose capital was Waihind. He was defeated by Sabuk-tigin in about 990 and by Mahmud near Peshawar in 1001, and he was succeeded by his son Anandpala.
What was Mahmud's link with Firdausi?
Firdausi, the poet of the Shah Namah, was the poet laureate at Mahmud's court. Mahmud was associated with the Iranian renaissance, and Persian became the language and culture of the Ghaznavid empire, which later reached India with the Turks.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Mahmud of Ghazni defeated Jayapala near Peshawar in 1001.
The land west of the Indus was ceded.
2 Mahmud annexed Gujarat after the raid on Somnath.
He returned to Ghazni without annexing it.
3 Firdausi was the court poet of Mahmud of Ghazni.
He wrote the Shah Namah.
4 Mahmud ruled Ghazni from 998 to 1030.
He died at Ghazni in 1030.
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