Origins and Features of Sufism in Medieval India
Medieval History › Bhakti and Sufi Movement · Topic 5.7
Sufism is the mystic tradition of Islam, in which devotees seek love and union with God. It began early among pious people disgusted by wealth and worldliness, was reconciled with orthodoxy by al-Ghazzali, was organised into about twelve silsilahs led by pirs with murids in khanqahs, and reached India from the twelfth century, where it influenced Muslims and Hindus alike.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Bhakti and Sufi Movement
At a Glance
- Core idea Mystic love and union with God
- Early figures Rabia (eighth century), Mansur al-Hallaj (tenth century)
- Reconciler Al-Ghazzali (died 1112)
- Structure Silsilah, khanqah, pir, murid, wali
- In India Established after the twelfth century
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: Bhakti and Sufi Movement
Where Does It Fit?
This is the seventh topic of the category on the Bhakti and Sufi movement. The previous topics covered the Bhakti saints, and this topic opens the Sufi side. The next topic covers the Chishti order. Previous topic: Ramananda and His Contribution to the Bhakti Movement.
How Did Sufism Begin?
In short: Sufism began early in Islam among mystics who were disgusted by wealth and moral decline after the Islamic empire was established, and it stressed love of God.
The tenth century was important in Islamic history. The Turks rose on the ruins of the Abbasid caliphate, the domination of the Mutazila rationalists ended, and orthodox schools based on the Quran and Hadis and the Sufi mystic orders rose. The rationalists were accused of spreading doubt, and their monism, which held that God and the world are fundamentally one, was called heretical for abolishing the difference between creator and created. The traditionalists’ work took form in four schools of Islamic law, and the Hanafi, the most liberal, was adopted by the eastern Turks who later came to India.
Mystics called Sufis had arisen at an early stage. Most of them were deeply devout people who were disgusted by the display of wealth and the decline of morals after the Islamic empire was founded, and so they wished to have nothing to do with the state. Early Sufis such as the woman mystic Rabia (eighth century) and Mansur al-Hallaj (tenth century) stressed love as the bond between God and the soul. Mansur’s pantheistic approach led to his execution for heresy, but mystic ideas continued to spread among the Muslim masses.
Who Reconciled Sufism with Orthodoxy?
Al-Ghazzali (died 1112), revered by both orthodox and Sufis, tried to reconcile mysticism with orthodoxy and largely succeeded. He dealt a further blow to the rationalists by arguing that positive knowledge of God cannot come by reason but only by revelation, so the revealed Quran was vital for a mystic.
How Were the Sufis Organised?
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Silsilah | A Sufi order, generally led by a prominent mystic; about twelve orders were organised |
| Khanqah | The hospice where the leader lived with his disciples |
| Pir | The teacher or spiritual guide |
| Murid | The disciple; the link between pir and murid was vital |
| Wali | The successor each pir nominated to carry on his work |
| Ba-shara | Orders that followed Islamic law |
| Be-shara | Orders not bound by it, often followed by wandering saints |
Both types of order existed in India. Some wandering saints did not found orders but became figures of popular veneration for both Muslims and Hindus.
What Is the Timeline of Sufism?
| Period | Development |
|---|---|
| Eighth century | Rabia, a woman mystic, stresses love of God |
| Tenth century | Rise of Turks, orthodox schools and Sufi orders; Mansur al-Hallaj executed |
| 1112 | Al-Ghazzali dies after reconciling mysticism with orthodoxy |
| Twelfth century | Sufi orders organised and arrive in India |
| Thirteenth and fourteenth centuries | Chishti and Suhrawardi orders gain a following in the north |
What Was the Link with Hindu and Buddhist Ideas?
The monastic organisation of the Sufis, and some practices such as penance, fasting and holding the breath, are sometimes traced to Buddhist and Hindu yogic influence. Buddhism was common in Central Asia before Islam, and the legend of the Buddha as a holy man entered Islamic legend. Yogis kept visiting West Asia, and the yogic text Amrit-kund was translated into Persian. Whether Buddhist and Vedantic ideas strongly influenced Sufi philosophy is controversial, and the Sufi saints trace their ideas to the Quran. In any case, similarities in views of God, the soul and the world gave a basis for mutual toleration. The Persian poet Sanai wrote that faith and infidelity both gallop towards Him, saying that He is one and none share His kingdom.
When the Sufi movement was established in India after the twelfth century it influenced both Muslims and Hindus and gave them a common platform. Scholars believe the early Sufis freely took rituals, including yogic practices, from Hinduism but kept an Islamic ideological structure.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Terms Silsilah, pir and murid are frequent Prelims words
- Common ground Explains Bhakti-Sufi interaction
- Context Prepares the topics on Chishti and Suhrawardi orders
What Came Next?
The next topic covers the Chishti order in India. Next topic: Sufi Silsilas – Chishti Order (Moinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya).
Key People and Terms
- Silsilah Sufi order
- Khanqah Sufi hospice
- Pir Teacher
- Murid Disciple
- Wali Successor
- Sufi Muslim mystic
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Rabia: eighth century; Mansur: tenth century, executed.
- Al-Ghazzali died in 1112.
- About 12 silsilahs.
- Ba-shara follows Islamic law; be-shara does not.
- Hanafi school adopted by the eastern Turks.
Do Not Confuse With
- Pir and murid Teacher versus disciple
- Ba-shara and be-shara With and without Islamic law
- Khanqah and dargah Hospice of a living pir versus tomb shrine
Memory Hook
Rabia loves, Mansur burns, Ghazzali reconciles, pirs gather murids in khanqahs.
Mains Angle
Questions on Sufism ask about origin and features. These points add depth.
- Origin Reaction to wealth and worldliness
- Organisation Silsilahs, pirs, khanqahs
- Influence Possible Hindu and Buddhist parallels
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Describe the origin and organisation of Sufism and its features in India.”
How to Answer
- Origin Early Sufis and Ghazzali.
- Structure Silsilah, pir, murid.
- Types Ba-shara and be-shara.
- India Common platform after the twelfth century.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Sufism?
Sufism is the mystic tradition of Islam in which devotees stress love of God and union with Him. It began early among pious people disgusted by wealth, and was organised into orders called silsilahs, led by pirs who lived with disciples in hospices called khanqahs.
What was al-Ghazzali's role?
Al-Ghazzali, who died in 1112, was honoured by orthodox Muslims and Sufis alike and tried to reconcile mysticism with orthodoxy. He argued that knowledge of God comes by revelation and not by reason, which made the Quran vital for a mystic.
What are the terms pir and murid?
A pir is the teacher or spiritual guide of a Sufi order and a murid is his disciple. The link between them was vital, and each pir nominated a successor, or wali, to carry on his work.
What are ba-shara and be-shara orders?
Ba-shara orders followed Islamic law, the shara, and be-shara orders were not bound by it. Both existed in India, and the latter were followed more by wandering saints who became popular figures for Hindus and Muslims.
How did Sufism relate to Hindu and Buddhist ideas?
Some Sufi practices such as penance, fasting and holding the breath are traced to Buddhist and yogic influence, but scholars debate it. The similarities in ideas about God and the soul gave a basis for mutual toleration between Sufis and Hindu mystics.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Al-Ghazzali tried to reconcile mysticism with Islamic orthodoxy.
He died in 1112.
2 Mansur al-Hallaj was executed for heresy.
He stressed love as the bond between God and soul.
3 A khanqah is a Sufi tomb.
It is a hospice where the pir lived with disciples.
4 The Hanafi school was adopted by the eastern Turks who came to India.
It was the most liberal school.
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