Development of the Indian Press: Early Regulations and the Struggle for Freedom
Modern History › Press, Education, Peasants and Workers · Topic 29.1
The first Indian newspaper, James Augustus Hickey's Bengal Gazette, began in 1780. Company officials feared that newspapers might expose their misdeeds in London, so they curbed the press: the Censorship of Press Act of 1799, the Licensing Regulations of 1823, Metcalfe's liberal Press Act of 1835, the Licensing Act of 1857 and the Registration Act of 1867. From 1824 Rammohan Roy led protests, and early nationalists used the press as their main tool.
6 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Press, Education, Peasants and Workers
At a Glance
- First newspaper Bengal Gazette by J.A. Hickey, 1780
- Wellesley Censorship of Press Act, 1799
- Metcalfe Press Act of 1835; liberator of the Indian press
- Registration Act 1867; regulatory, replaced Metcalfe’s Act
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Modern History: Press, Education, Peasants and Workers
Where Does It Fit?
This is the first topic of the category on the press, education, peasants and workers. The previous topic covered the three stages of colonialism. This topic covers the early regulations on the press and the nationalists’ struggle for its freedom. The next topic covers the Vernacular Press Act and later press laws. Previous topic: Three Stages of Colonialism in India.
How Did the Indian Press Begin?
James Augustus Hickey started The Bengal Gazette, or Calcutta General Advertiser, in 1780, the first newspaper in India. It was seized, on the record in 1782, because of its outspoken criticism of the government. Later came The Bengal Journal, The Calcutta Chronicle, The Madras Courier and The Bombay Herald. The Company’s officers worried that these newspapers might reach London and expose their misdeeds, and so saw a need to curb the press. The source prints 1872 for the seizure, which is a misprint of 1782.
What Were the Early Press Regulations?
| Law | Provisions |
|---|---|
| Censorship of Press Act, 1799 | Enacted by Lord Wellesley in anticipation of a French invasion; imposed almost wartime restrictions including pre-censorship; relaxed under Lord Hastings, who had progressive views, and pre-censorship was dropped in 1818 |
| Licensing Regulations, 1823 | Enacted by the acting Governor-General John Adams, who had reactionary views; starting or using a press without a licence was a penal offence, later extended to journals, pamphlets and books; aimed chiefly at Indian-language newspapers and those edited by Indians; Rammohan Roy’s Mirat-ul-Akbar had to stop publication |
| Press Act of 1835 (Metcalfe Act) | Metcalfe, Governor-General in 1835-36, repealed the 1823 ordinance and earned the title liberator of the Indian press; a printer or publisher had to give a precise account of the premises of publication; the liberal policy led to a rapid growth of newspapers |
| Licensing Act, 1857 | Passed in the emergency of the 1857 revolt; added licensing restrictions to the registration procedure of the Metcalfe Act and let the government stop the publication and circulation of any book, newspaper or printed matter |
| Registration Act, 1867 | Replaced Metcalfe’s Act; regulatory and not restrictive; every book or newspaper had to print the names of printer and publisher and the place of publication, and a copy of each book had to go to the local government within a month |
The revolt is in Beginning and Spread of the Revolt: Meerut and Delhi.
How Did the Early Nationalists Struggle for Press Freedom?
From the early nineteenth century, defence of civil liberties, including press freedom, was high on the nationalist agenda. As early as 1824, Raja Rammohan Roy protested against a resolution restricting the freedom of the press. From about 1870 to 1918 the nationalist movement focussed more on political propaganda and education, on forming and spreading nationalist ideology and on arousing, training and consolidating public opinion, than on mass agitation or mobilisation at open meetings. For this the press was a crucial tool. In its early days the Indian National Congress relied solely on the press to publish its resolutions and proceedings.
| Newspaper | Editor or founder |
|---|---|
| The Hindu and Swadesamitran | G. Subramaniya Aiyar |
| The Bengalee | Surendranath Banerjea |
| Voice of India | Dadabhai Naoroji |
| Amrita Bazar Patrika | Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh |
| Indian Mirror | N.N. Sen |
| Kesari (Marathi) and Maharatta (English) | Bal Gangadhar Tilak |
| Sudharak | Gopal Ganesh Agarkar |
| Hindustan and Advocate | G.P. Verma |
| Others | Tribune and Akhbar-i-Am in Punjab; Gujarati, Indu Prakash, Dhyan Prakash and Kal in Bombay; Som Prakash, Banganivasi and Sadharani in Bengal |
What Was the Role of These Newspapers?
These newspapers were not set up as profit-making ventures but were seen as a national and public service. Their reach was wide, and they stimulated a library movement. Their impact was not limited to towns; they reached remote villages, where each news item and editorial was read and discussed in local libraries gathered around a single newspaper. Such libraries served political education and political participation. In the newspapers, government Acts and policies were put to critical scrutiny, so that they acted as an institution of opposition.
The government had enacted strident laws, such as Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code, which provided that anyone trying to cause disaffection against the British Government in India could be transported for life or for any term, or imprisoned for up to three years. But nationalist journalists devised clever stratagems to get past the legal hurdles: writings hostile to the government were prefaced with expressions of loyalty, or critical writings of socialists or Irish nationalists from English newspapers were quoted. This needed an intelligent mix of simplicity and subtlety. The national movement stood for press freedom from the beginning, and Indian newspapers became highly critical of Lord Lytton’s administration, especially its treatment of the victims of the famine of 1876-77. The government struck back with the Vernacular Press Act of 1878, covered in Vernacular Press Act, 1878 and Later Press Laws. The early nationalists are in Evaluation of the Early Nationalists.
As an analytical point, the pattern from 1799 to 1867 is one of tightening in emergencies, such as wartime or after 1857, and loosening in calmer times, which shows that the press laws followed the government’s sense of danger more than any settled view of press freedom. The shorter summary of press restrictions in the context of the British policies is in Restrictions on the Press and White Racism.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Press laws chronology Dates and rulers are stock Prelims facts
- Nationalist newspapers Matching of newspapers and editors is often asked
- Role of the press Shows the press as a tool of early nationalism
What Came Next?
The next topic covers the Vernacular Press Act of 1878 and the press laws that followed. Next topic: Vernacular Press Act, 1878 and Later Press Laws.
Key People and Terms
- Bengal Gazette The first Indian newspaper, started by Hickey in 1780
- Pre-censorship Prior approval of content before publication
- Metcalfe Act The Press Act of 1835
- Registration Act of 1867 A regulatory law replacing the Metcalfe Act
- Section 124A The sedition provision of the Indian Penal Code
- Mirat-ul-Akbar Rammohan Roy’s paper that had to stop in 1823
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Hickey’s Bengal Gazette: 1780.
- Wellesley 1799; Adams 1823; Metcalfe 1835; 1857; 1867.
- Pre-censorship dropped in 1818 under Hastings.
- Rammohan Roy protested in 1824.
- Congress relied on the press for its early propaganda.
Do Not Confuse With
- 1799 and 1823 Acts Wellesley’s wartime censorship versus Adams’s licensing
- 1835 and 1867 Acts Metcalfe’s liberal Act versus the regulatory Registration Act
- 1857 Act and 1867 Act Emergency licensing versus regulation
Memory Hook
Wellesley censored, Adams licensed, Metcalfe freed, 1857 shut it, 1867 only registered.
Mains Angle
Questions ask about the early press laws and the press in nationalism. These points add depth.
- Laws Tightening and loosening
- Press Tool of propaganda and education
- Methods Evading sedition law
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Trace the early regulation of the press in India and the role of the press in the early nationalist movement.”
How to Answer
- Beginning Hickey and early papers.
- Laws 1799 to 1867.
- Nationalists Newspapers and libraries.
- Conclude Link to the 1878 Act.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
Which was the first newspaper in India?
The first newspaper in India was The Bengal Gazette, or Calcutta General Advertiser, started by James Augustus Hickey in 1780. It was seized because of its outspoken criticism of the government, which made the Company's officers want curbs on the press.
What was the Censorship of Press Act of 1799?
Lord Wellesley enacted it in anticipation of a French invasion. It imposed almost wartime restrictions on the press, including pre-censorship, which were relaxed under Lord Hastings, and pre-censorship was ended in 1818. The Act stayed in force until the liberal reforms that followed under Metcalfe in 1835.
What did the Licensing Regulations of 1823 provide?
They made it a penal offence to start or use a press without a licence, and were later extended to journals, pamphlets and books. They targeted Indian-language newspapers, and Rammohan Roy's Mirat-ul-Akbar had to stop publication.
Why was Metcalfe called the liberator of the Indian press?
Metcalfe repealed the 1823 ordinance in 1835 and substituted a Press Act that required only a precise account of the premises of a publication. This liberal policy led to a rapid growth of newspapers, and Indian-language journals multiplied across Bengal, Bombay and Madras.
What did the Registration Act of 1867 provide?
It replaced Metcalfe's Act and was regulatory and not restrictive. Every book or newspaper had to print the names of the printer and publisher and the place of publication, and a copy was to be sent to the local government within a month.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 James Augustus Hickey started the Bengal Gazette in 1780.
It was the first Indian newspaper.
2 Pre-censorship introduced in 1799 was ended in 1818 under Lord Hastings.
He had progressive views.
3 The Licensing Regulations of 1823 were repealed by Metcalfe.
He is called the liberator of the Indian press.
4 The Registration Act of 1867 imposed pre-censorship.
It was regulatory, not restrictive.
5 Raja Rammohan Roy protested against a resolution restricting press freedom in 1824.
His Mirat-ul-Akbar was stopped in 1823.
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