Constitutional Reforms, Administrative Reforms and Civil Rights Campaigns
Modern History › Beginning of Modern Nationalism and the Moderate Phase · Topic 13.7
The Moderates worked in the legislative councils, demanding their expansion and reform, which the Indian Councils Act of 1892 only partly granted. They also campaigned for Indianisation of services, separation of judicial and executive functions, a less aggressive foreign policy, more welfare spending and the defence of civil rights.
7 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Beginning of Modern Nationalism and the Moderate Phase
At a Glance
- Constitutional Expand and reform the councils; “No taxation without representation”
- Act Indian Councils Act, 1892: partial concession
- Administrative Indianisation, judicial separation, welfare spending, foreign policy
- Civil rights Speech, thought, association, free press
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Modern History: Beginning of Modern Nationalism and the Moderate Phase
Where Does It Fit?
This is the seventh topic of the category on the beginning of modern nationalism and the Moderate phase. The previous topic covered the Moderates’ economic critique. This topic covers their political demands within the system. The next and last topic evaluates the early nationalists. Previous topic: Economic Critique of British Imperialism by the Early Nationalists.
What Was the State of the Legislative Councils?
The legislative councils in India had no real official power till 1920. Yet the work done in them by the nationalists helped the growth of the national movement. The Imperial Legislative Council constituted by the Indian Councils Act of 1861 was an impotent body designed to disguise official measures as having been passed by a representative body. Indian members were few: in the thirty years from 1862 to 1892 only forty-five Indians were nominated to it, most of them wealthy, landed and loyalist. Only a handful of political figures and independent intellectuals, such as Syed Ahmed Khan, Kristodas Pal, V.N. Mandlik, K.L. Nulkar and Rashbehari Ghosh, were nominated. Syed Ahmed Khan is described in Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement.
What Constitutional Reforms Did They Demand?
From 1885 to 1892, the nationalist demands for constitutional reform centred on two points: (1) expansion of the councils, that is, greater participation of Indians; and (2) reform of the councils, that is, more powers, especially greater control over finances. The early nationalists worked with the long-term aim of democratic self-government. The demands were meant to be conceded in 1892 in the form of the Indian Councils Act.
| Indian Councils Act, 1892 | Detail |
|---|---|
| Members | Additional members in the Imperial and Provincial Legislative Councils raised; in the Imperial Council the Governor-General could have ten to sixteen non-officials instead of six to ten |
| Nomination | Non-official members to be nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and provincial legislative councils; recommendations from universities, municipalities, zamindars and chambers of commerce, so the principle of representation was introduced |
| Powers | The budget could be discussed; questions could be asked |
| Limit: majority | Officials retained their majority, making the non-official voice ineffective |
| Limit: meetings | The reformed Imperial Council met on average for only thirteen days a year till 1909, with only five of twenty-four unofficial Indian members present |
| Limit: budget | The budget could not be voted upon or amended |
| Limit: questions | Supplementaries could not be asked, and answers could not be discussed |
The reforms were severely criticised at Congress sessions, where nationalists made no secret of their dissatisfaction. They now demanded (i) a majority of elected Indians and (ii) control over the budget, with the power to vote upon and amend it. They gave the slogan “No taxation without representation”. Gradually the scope of constitutional demands widened: Dadabhai Naoroji (1904), Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1905) and Lokmanya Tilak (1906) demanded self-government on the lines of the self-governing colonies of Canada and Australia. Leaders such as Pherozshah Mehta and Gokhale put government policies and proposals to severe criticism.
How Did the Councils Become Platforms?
The British had intended to use the councils to take in the more vocal Indian leaders, letting them blow off their political steam while the impotent councils could remain deaf to their criticism. But the nationalists transformed the councils into forums for ventilating popular grievances, exposing the defects of an indifferent bureaucracy, criticising government policies and proposals, and raising basic economic issues, especially in public finance. The nationalists thus enhanced their political stature and built a national movement while undermining the political and moral influence of imperialist rule, generating anti-imperialist sentiment among the public. But they failed to widen the democratic base of the movement by not including the masses, especially women, and by not demanding the right to vote for all.
What Administrative Reforms Did the Moderates Campaign For?
| Campaign | Grounds and detail |
|---|---|
| Indianisation of government service | Economic: British civil servants got very high pay, so Indians would be more economical. Political: salaries were remitted home and pensions paid in England, all from Indian revenue, an economic drain. Moral: Indians were discriminated against by being kept from positions of trust |
| Separation of judicial from executive functions | A call for separation |
| Criticism of the bureaucracy and judiciary | Oppressive, tyrannical bureaucracy; expensive, time-consuming judicial system |
| Criticism of foreign policy | An aggressive policy that led to the annexation of Burma, an attack on Afghanistan and suppression of tribals in the North-West, all costing the Indian treasury heavily |
| Welfare spending | More spending on health, sanitation, education (especially elementary and technical), irrigation, agriculture and agricultural banks for cultivators |
| Indian labour abroad | Better treatment of Indian labour in other British colonies, where it faced oppression and racial discrimination |
The foreign policy points relate to Anglo-Burmese Relations and Anglo-Tibetan and Anglo-Afghan Relations. The economic grounds are developed in Economic Critique of British Imperialism by the Early Nationalists.
How Did They Defend Civil Rights?
Civil rights included the right to speech, thought, association and a free press. Through an incessant campaign, the nationalists spread modern democratic ideas, and soon the defence of civil rights became an integral part of the freedom struggle. It was due to this increased consciousness that there was a great public outrage at the arrest of Tilak and several other leaders and journalists in 1897 and at the arrest and deportation of the Natu brothers without a trial. Justice Ranade told Gokhale in 1891 that the memorials, though nominally addressed to the government, were really addressed to the people, so that they might learn to think on these matters, and that this work must go on for many years without expecting other results, since this kind of politics was new in the land.
As an analytical point, the Moderates achieved little in concrete reforms, as the weakness of the 1892 Act shows. But their method was itself the achievement: the councils, memorials and campaigns taught Indians how to organise and to think politically. The disappointment with the Act and the repressive actions of 1897 onwards, listed in the chapter on the militant phase, prepared the ground for a more militant nationalism, treated in Why Militant Nationalism Grew.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Key Act The Indian Councils Act, 1892 and its limits are a standard Prelims topic
- Political education The councils as forums for criticism is a Mains point
- Link to militancy The limited gains explain the rise of the Extremists
What Came Next?
The next and last topic of this category evaluates the early nationalists. Next topic: Evaluation of the Early Nationalists.
Key People and Terms
- Indian Councils Act 1861 The Act creating an impotent Imperial Legislative Council
- Indian Councils Act 1892 The Act that expanded councils and introduced representation in principle
- Non-official member A council member not holding a government post
- Supplementary question A follow-up question, not allowed under the 1892 Act
- Indianisation The employment of Indians in higher services
- Civil rights The rights of speech, thought, association and a free press
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Only 45 Indians nominated in 1862-92.
- Demands: expansion and reform of councils.
- Indian Councils Act 1892: more members, budget discussion, questions; no vote on the budget.
- Slogan: “No taxation without representation”.
- 1897: arrest of Tilak; Natu brothers deported without trial.
Do Not Confuse With
- Act of 1861 and Act of 1892 1861: impotent council; 1892: representation in principle, budget discussion
- Expansion and reform of councils Expansion: more Indians; reform: more powers, especially finance
- Discussion and vote on the budget The budget could be discussed but not voted upon
Memory Hook
Discuss, ask, but never vote: the 1892 Act.
Mains Angle
Questions ask about the Moderate demands and the 1892 Act. These points add depth.
- Platform for criticism Councils became forums to expose bureaucracy
- Limited gain Officials kept a majority
- Defence of rights Civil rights became a part of the freedom struggle
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Examine the Moderates’ demands for constitutional and administrative reforms and the response of the government.”
How to Answer
- Councils The state of the legislative councils before 1892.
- Act Provisions and limits of the 1892 Act.
- Administrative Services, judiciary, foreign policy, welfare.
- Conclude Assess their effect.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What constitutional reforms did the Moderates demand?
The Moderates demanded expansion of the legislative councils, with more Indian participation, and reform, with more powers especially over finance. Later they demanded an elected majority and control over the budget, with the slogan no taxation without representation.
What were the main provisions of the Indian Councils Act, 1892?
The Act raised the number of additional members, introduced the principle of representation through nomination on recommendations from bodies such as universities and municipalities, allowed the budget to be discussed and questions to be asked, but gave no vote on the budget.
What were the limitations of the Indian Councils Act, 1892?
Officials kept their majority, the budget could not be voted upon or amended, supplementary questions were not permitted, and the reformed Imperial Council met only about thirteen days a year with few unofficial Indian members present.
How did the Moderates use the legislative councils?
They turned the councils into forums to ventilate popular grievances, expose bureaucratic defects, criticise government policies and raise economic issues, especially public finance, which raised their political stature though they could not widen the democratic base.
What administrative reforms did the Moderates campaign for?
They campaigned for Indianisation of services, separation of judicial and executive functions, criticism of an oppressive bureaucracy and costly judiciary, a less aggressive foreign policy, more welfare and education spending, and better treatment of Indian labour abroad.
How did the Moderates defend civil rights?
They campaigned for the right to speech, thought, association and a free press. As a result the arrest of Tilak and others in 1897 and the deportation of the Natu brothers without trial caused great public outrage.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Under the Indian Councils Act of 1892 the budget could be voted upon.
It could be discussed but not voted upon or amended.
2 The Moderates used the slogan "No taxation without representation".
They demanded control over the budget.
3 In 1862-92 only forty-five Indians were nominated to the Imperial Legislative Council.
Most were wealthy and loyalist.
4 The 1892 Act allowed non-officials to form the majority in the councils.
Officials retained their majority.
5 Naoroji, Gokhale and Tilak demanded self-government like Canada and Australia in 1904-06.
The scope of demands had widened.
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