The Middle Strata and Commercial Classes in Medieval India
Medieval History › Medieval Society & Social Structure · Topic 7.8
Medieval India had a middle strata of small mansabdars, shopkeepers, master craftsmen and professionals such as hakims, scholars, qazis and petty officials, many supported by madad-i-maash grants, and a large, well-organised trading class. Merchants like Virji Vohra and Abdul Ghafur Bohra were among the world's richest, protected by law but of low social status and without rights to govern towns.
6 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Medieval Society & Social Structure
At a Glance
- Middle strata Small mansabdars, shopkeepers, master craftsmen, professionals
- Grants Madad-i-maash (sasan in Rajasthan)
- Traders Seth, bohra, modi, banik, banjaras
- Rich merchants Virji Vohra, Abdul Ghafur Bohra
- Status Wealthy but of low social standing
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: Medieval Society & Social Structure
Where Does It Fit?
This is the last topic of the category on medieval society and social structure. The previous topic described the ruling classes, and this one completes the picture with those in between. The next category covers economy and trade. Previous topic: The Ruling Classes – Nobility and Rural Gentry.
Did India Have a Middle Class?
In short: Bernier said there was no middle state, but the evidence shows large middle sections, though they did not form one class.
The Frenchman Bernier said that in India a person was either extremely rich or lived miserably. The statement cannot be accepted. If middle class means traders and shopkeepers, India had a large class of rich merchants, some of the richest in the world, with traditional rights to life and property but not the right to administer the towns that European merchants had acquired in special circumstances. If it means a section between rich and poor, such sections were large in Mughal India.
| Section | Members |
|---|---|
| Small mansabdars | Lower officers of the nobility |
| Shopkeepers and master craftsmen | Petty shopkeepers and a small but important group of master craftsmen |
| Professionals | Hakims, leading musicians and artists, historians, scholars, qazis and theologians |
| Petty officials | A large class of pen-pushers running the growing administration; paid in cash and supplementing income through corruption |
How Did the Middle Strata Hold Land?
Scholars, religious divines and similar people were granted small tracts of land for maintenance. Such grants were called madad-i-maash in Mughal terms, or sasan in Rajasthan. Besides the emperor, local rulers, zamindars and nobles also made them. They had to be renewed by every ruler but often became hereditary in practice. These sections often became part of the rural gentry and a link between the village and the town; writers, historians and theologians often belonged to this group. The middle strata did not form a class because the interests of different sections differed, and they came from various religious groups and castes. The inam lands of Akbar, which went to all irrespective of religion, are in Akbar’s Central and Provincial Administration.
How Were the Traders Organised?
| Group | Detail |
|---|---|
| Long-distance traders | Called seth, bohra or modi |
| Retail traders | Beoparis or baniks, who had agents in villages and townships for buying foodgrains and cash crops |
| Banjaras | Specialists in carrying bulk goods over long distances, sometimes with thousands of oxen; costlier goods went on camels, mules or carts |
| Agents | Gumashtas and commission agents (dalals) linked wholesalers and local merchants |
| Bankers | Sarrafs (shroffs) changed money, dealt in hundis, kept deposits from nobles and lent, acting as private banks |
| Hundi | A letter of credit payable after a period at a discount, often with insurance, which reduced the need to move money |
The trading community did not belong to one caste or religion. Gujarati merchants included Hindus, Jains and mostly Bohra Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals, Maheshwaris and Agarwals began to be called Marwaris. Overland trade to Central Asia was in the hands of Multanis, Afghans and Khatris. The Chettis of the Coromandel coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar, Indian and Arab, were the most important in the south. In the Sultanate period the coastal trade and the trade between ports and north India was already in the hands of Marwaris and Gujaratis, many of them Jains, with Bohra Muslim merchants also taking part.
How Rich and Secure Were Merchants?
Some merchants were comparable in wealth and power to the merchant princes of Europe. Virji Vohra dominated Surat’s trade for decades and owned a large fleet; Abdul Ghafur Bohra left 55 lakh rupees in cash and goods and 17 sea-going ships at his death in 1718. Malay Chetti, Kashi Viranna and Sunca Rama Chetti of Coromandel were also extremely wealthy, as were merchants of Agra, Delhi, Balasore and Bengal. Wealthy coastal merchants lived ostentatiously, aping the nobles; those of Agra and Delhi lived in commodious houses, while ordinary ones lived above their shops. Bernier said merchants pretended to be poor to avoid being squeezed like filled sponges, but this does not seem fully correct. Emperors from Sher Shah passed laws to protect merchants’ property, and Jahangir’s ordinances left a dead person’s goods to heirs, with property of those without heirs used for public works. Local officials could still harass traders, but property was generally safe, transport cheap, roads safe and sarais at regular distances as good as in Europe.
Nevertheless trade and traders had a low social status. Merchant influence in politics is controversial, but each community had a leader, the nagarseth, who interceded with local officials, and merchants in Ahmedabad and elsewhere used strikes (hartal) to press their views. Nobles like Mir Jumla and members of the royal family took part in trade. As an analytical point, Indian merchants had wealth and organisation without political power, unlike the merchant classes of Britain, France and Holland whose states pushed their business interests, a contrast that historians draw. The artisans who depended on them are in Artisans and Master-Craftsmen in Medieval India.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Debate Was there a middle class in medieval India?
- Terms Madad-i-maash, banjara, hundi, nagarseth
- Link Prepares the trade and economy category
What Came Next?
The next category covers economy and trade, beginning with inland trade. Next topic: Inland Trade in Medieval India.
Key People and Terms
- Madad-i-maash Small land grants for maintenance
- Banjara Bulk goods carrier
- Hundi Letter of credit
- Sarraf Money changer and banker
- Nagarseth Merchant community leader
- Dalal Commission agent
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Grants: madad-i-maash, sasan in Rajasthan.
- Virji Vohra dominated Surat.
- Abdul Ghafur Bohra: 55 lakh, 17 ships.
- Leader of a trade community: nagarseth.
- Merchants had no right to administer towns.
Do Not Confuse With
- Seth and banik Long-distance trader versus retail trader
- Hundi and cash Credit letter versus coin
- Middle strata and middle class Several sections with differing interests versus one class
Memory Hook
Middle sections, many interests; banjara carries, sarraf lends, nagarseth speaks.
Mains Angle
Questions on this topic ask whether medieval India had a middle class. These points add depth.
- Composition Officials, professionals, shopkeepers
- Merchants Wealth and organisation
- Limits Low status and no political power
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Was there a middle class in medieval India? Examine.”
How to Answer
- Claim Bernier’s view.
- Evidence Middle strata and merchants.
- Features Grants, organisation, wealth.
- Verdict Large, diverse, not one class.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What was madad-i-maash?
Madad-i-maash was the Mughal term for small tracts of land granted to scholars, religious divines and similar people for their maintenance, called sasan in Rajasthan. Grants were renewed by each ruler but often became hereditary.
Did medieval India have a middle class?
Bernier denied it, but historians point to large middle sections: small mansabdars, shopkeepers, master craftsmen and professionals. Rich merchants also existed, but the middle strata did not form a single class because their interests differed.
Who were the banjaras?
Banjaras were traders who specialised in carrying bulk goods such as foodgrains, pulses, ghee and salt over long distances, sometimes with thousands of oxen. Costlier goods like textiles and silks went on camels, mules or carts, while bulk goods moved cheaper by river.
What was a hundi?
A hundi was a letter of credit payable after a period of time at a discount, often including insurance. Sarrafs dealt in hundis and acted as private banks, which reduced the risky movement of money across the country.
Why was the status of merchants low?
Trade and traders had a low social status despite great wealth. Merchants lacked the right to administer towns, though they had rights to life and property, and each community had a nagarseth who interceded with officials.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Madad-i-maash grants often became hereditary in practice.
They were called sasan in Rajasthan.
2 Indian merchants had the right to administer towns.
They lacked it.
3 Virji Vohra dominated the trade of Surat.
He owned a large fleet.
4 Hundis were letters of credit payable after a period at a discount.
Sarrafs dealt in them.
Related Topics
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