Artisans and Master-Craftsmen in Medieval India
Medieval History › Medieval Society & Social Structure · Topic 7.3
Artisans ranged from village craftsmen paid in customary commodities to town weavers, metalworkers and paper-makers who served courts and markets, and a small but important group of master craftsmen. Turkish rule brought new crafts and tools; Indian textiles, especially of Bengal and Gujarat, were world-famous. Wages were low, tools simple and capital scarce, and the putting-out (dadni) system made artisans dependent on merchants.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Medieval Society & Social Structure
At a Glance
- Village artisans Paid in customary commodities
- New crafts Paper, glass, spinning wheel, improved loom
- Famous cloth Bengal muslin, Gujarat fabrics
- Court craft Royal karkhanas
- System Putting-out (dadni)
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: Medieval Society & Social Structure
Where Does It Fit?
This is the third topic of the category on medieval society and social structure. The previous topic covered towns, and this one looks at those who made the goods. The next topic covers the status of women. Previous topic: Towns and Town Life in Medieval India.
Who Were the Artisans?
In short: artisans formed a large and varied class, from village potters paid in grain to master craftsmen of the cities.
| Type | Detail |
|---|---|
| Village artisans | Paid for their services in commodities fixed by custom; made earthen utensils, tools and cloth; suffered most in famines |
| Town artisans | Shopkeepers, weavers, ironworkers and paper-makers, many of whom followed new crafts introduced by the Turks or depended on the ruling class’s patronage; some converted to Islam |
| Master craftsmen | A small but important section of the middle strata, with a standard of living between rich and poor |
| Karkhana workers | Skilled workmen in royal workshops that made silk, gold and silver ware and other costly goods |
Village industries rested on crops like sesame, indigo and cotton: oil pressing, making jaggery, weaving and dyeing of cloth.
What New Crafts and Techniques Came?
The Turks introduced or popularised the iron stirrup and large-scale armour, which spurred metallurgy and metal crafts, the improved rahat for lifting water from deeper levels, paper-making, glass-making, the spinning wheel and an improved loom. Paper was discovered by the Chinese in the second century, reached the Arab world by the eighth and Europe only in the fourteenth. Cotton was cleaned faster with the wider use of the cotton carder’s bow (dhunia). The superior mortar allowed arches and domes. The skill of Indian craftsmen was the most important factor in textile production. Not all these crafts were new, but their expansion with agricultural growth made the second half of the fourteenth century a period of growth and relative affluence.
How Did Artisans Relate to Religion and Patronage?
In the towns, many artisans following the new crafts the Turks introduced, or depending on the patronage of the ruling class, such as weavers, ironworkers and paper-makers, converted to Islam. There is no evidence that large numbers of lower-caste people converted because of discrimination or Sufi influence; conversions had personal, political and regional causes. Royal karkhanas served the court’s needs: the superintendents of the stores under Firuz Tughlaq were told to buy finely finished articles wherever and at whatever price they were available, and on one occasion a single pair of shoes for the sultan cost 70,000 tankas. These workshops also supplied the haram.
Which Crafts Were Famous?
| Centre | Product |
|---|---|
| Bengal and Gujarat | Fine fabrics |
| Cambay | Textiles and gold and silver work |
| Sonargaon | Raw silk and fine cotton cloth, later called muslin |
| Others | Leather work, metal work, carpet weaving, woodwork including furniture, stone-cutting |
| Lahore | Handicrafts and Kashmir shawls and carpets distributed from there |
| Coromandel | Textiles that supplied Gujarat and the overseas trade |
Indian textiles were established in the trade to the Red Sea and Persian Gulf countries and were valued in China even more than silk. By the seventeenth century Indian cloth clothed much of Asia, and the European companies’ demand for calicoes made Coromandel and Bengal major suppliers. The wider trade in these goods is described in the next category on economy and trade.
What Was Their Condition and Dependence?
Under Alauddin Khalji an artisan earned 2 or 3 jitals a day, about 1½ to 2 tankas a month, and under Akbar an unskilled labourer earned 2½ to 3 rupees a month or less. In terms of income, artisans’ and workers’ conditions in towns appear hard. Most manufactures remained small in scale, with hardly any machinery and simple tools, so even a skilful craftsman’s productivity stayed low. Artisans could not become traders and entrepreneurs as in the West, both because of caste and because they had little capital, a reflection of the very uneven distribution of money, which kept the domestic market limited. Their ready availability in large numbers also discouraged efforts to apply machine power. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the putting-out (dadni) system grew: merchants advanced money for goods to be made. This increased production but made artisans more and more dependent on Indian or foreign merchants.
As an analytical point, artisans were the producers of India’s wealth in trade, but the caste order, low wages and merchants’ control kept them from sharing in its profits. Their link to the middle strata is in The Middle Strata and Commercial Classes in Medieval India.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Crafts and techniques New technologies of the Turks are asked
- Centres Famous craft towns and products
- Economic structure Dadni and dependence
What Came Next?
The next topic describes the status and position of women. Next topic: Status and Position of Women in Medieval Indian Society.
Key People and Terms
- Dadni Putting-out advance system
- Karkhana Workshop
- Dhunia Cotton carder’s bow
- Rahat Water-lifting device
- Muslin Fine cotton cloth
- Master craftsman Skilled, higher-status artisan
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Spinning wheel and improved loom came with the Turks.
- Paper: China, 2nd century; Europe, 14th.
- Sonargaon muslin.
- Wage about 2 to 3 rupees a month under Akbar.
- Dadni raised dependence on merchants.
Do Not Confuse With
- Karkhana and dadni Royal workshop versus merchant advance system
- Dhunia and rahat Carder’s bow versus water-lifting wheel
- Village artisan and master craftsman Customary pay versus higher-status urban craftsman
Memory Hook
Wheel and loom, paper and glass, muslin and silk; the artisan makes it, the merchant keeps the margin.
Mains Angle
Questions on artisans ask about techniques and dependence. These points add depth.
- Techniques Turkish additions
- Centres Regional specialities
- Constraints Capital, caste and merchants
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Discuss the condition of artisans and handicrafts in medieval India.”
How to Answer
- Types Village, town and master craftsmen.
- Techniques New crafts.
- Products Textile centres.
- Limits Low capital and dadni.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What new crafts did the Turks introduce?
The Turks introduced or popularised the spinning wheel, an improved loom, paper-making and glass-making, the rahat for irrigation and the use of iron stirrups and armour. Their superior mortar also allowed magnificent arches and domes.
Which places were famous for textiles?
Bengal and Gujarat were famous for fine fabrics. Cambay was known for textiles and gold and silver work, and Sonargaon for raw silk and fine cotton later called muslin. Coromandel became a major supplier later.
How were village artisans paid?
Village artisans were paid for their services in commodities whose amount was fixed by custom, not in money, since money hardly entered village transactions. Along with landless labourers they suffered most in the frequent famines.
What was the dadni system?
The dadni or putting-out system grew in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Merchants advanced money for goods to be produced. It increased production but made artisans more and more dependent on Indian or foreign merchants.
Why could artisans not become entrepreneurs?
Artisans had little capital, caste restricted their movement into trade, and the very uneven distribution of money kept the domestic market small. Most of the work was done with the simplest tools in small units, so productivity stayed low.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 The spinning wheel was among the technologies popularised by the Turks.
So was an improved loom.
2 Sonargaon was famous for raw silk and fine cotton cloth.
This cloth was later called muslin.
3 Village artisans were mostly paid in cash.
They were paid in commodities fixed by custom.
4 The dadni system made artisans more independent of merchants.
It made them more dependent.
Related Topics
Browse the full Medieval History index