Origin, Extent and Phases of the Harappan Civilisation
Ancient History › Indus Valley Civilisation · Topic 3.1
The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation, India's first urbanisation, grew out of Baluchistan's Neolithic and Hakra-area settlements and flourished in its mature urban phase from about 2600 or 2500 to 1900 BC across about 1.3 million sq km, with some 2800 sites and cities at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Lothal and Banawali. It was discovered in 1921 and is divided into Early, Mature and Late phases.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Indus Valley Civilisation
At a Glance
- Discovered 1921 at Harappa
- Mature phase About 2600/2500 to 1900 BC
- Area About 1.3 million sq km
- Sites Nearly 2800; 1022 mature
- Biggest city Mohenjo-daro, 500 ha
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Ancient History: Indus Valley Civilisation
Where Does It Fit?
This is the first topic of the category on the Indus Valley Civilisation. The previous category dealt with prehistoric and chalcolithic cultures, and this one begins the Bronze Age urban culture. The next topic describes its town planning and structures. Previous topic: Megalithic and Iron Age Cultures of South India.
How Was the Civilisation Discovered?
In short: a seal noticed in 1853 and excavations in 1921 and 1922 revealed a lost Bronze Age civilisation.
In 1853 A. Cunningham noticed a Harappan seal with a bull and six letters but did not realise its importance. The potential of Harappa was appreciated in 1921 when Daya Ram Sahni began excavating it, and R.D. Banerji excavated Mohenjo-daro in Sindh at about the same time. Large-scale excavations at Mohenjo-daro were carried out under John Marshall’s supervision in 1931, with Mackay in 1938; M.S. Vats dug at Harappa in 1940 and Mortimer Wheeler in 1946. After Partition, archaeologists in India (Suraj Bhan, M.K. Dhavalikar, J.P. Joshi, B.B. Lal, S.R. Rao, B.K. Thapar, R.S. Bisht) worked in Gujarat, Haryana and Rajasthan, and in Pakistan F.A. Khan excavated Kot Diji and M.R. Mughal studied the Hakra cultures. The civilisation is called Harappan because Harappa, in Pakistani Punjab, was found first.
How Did It Originate?
Agricultural settlements first arose on the eastern fringe of Baluchistan about 7000 BC, in the pre-ceramic Neolithic, and people domesticated goats, sheep and cattle and grew barley and wheat. From the fifth millennium BC granaries, mud bricks, painted pottery and female terracotta figurines appeared. Pre-Harappan farming settlements also sprang up in the Hakra area in Cholistan about 4000 BC. Rahman Dheri in northern Baluchistan was the earliest town with planned roads and houses. So the early and mature Harappan cultures developed from the Baluchistan settlements, helped by a climate that in 3000 to 2000 BC was not arid but had heavy rain and a substantial flow of water in the Indus and the Sarasvati (the dried Hakra). That flow owed much to the Yamuna and Sutlej joining it, so credit goes to these rivers together with the Indus and not to the Sarasvati alone. The earlier cultures are in Neolithic Settlements – Baluchistan, Kashmir, Chirand and South India.
| Phase | Date | Character |
|---|---|---|
| Early Harappan | 3000 to 2600 BCE | Villages and towns developed over the region; sites such as Kalibangan, Banawali, Kot Diji and Amri |
| Mature Harappan | 2600 (or 2500) to 1900 BCE | Urban centres with planning, seals, script and standard weights |
| Late Harappan | 1900 to 1700 BCE and later | De-urbanisation; post-urban villages up to about 1200 BC |
How Wide Was Its Spread and Which Were the Cities?
The mature culture formed a triangle from the Siwaliks and Meerut in the north-east to the Arabian Sea, and from the Makran coast in the west to Alamgirpur in the east, covering Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and fringes of western UP. Its area, about 1,299,600 sq km, is larger than Pakistan or ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, and no contemporary culture was as widespread. Nearly 2800 sites are known, of which 1022 are mature, 406 in Pakistan and 616 in India. Sutkagen-dor on the Pakistan-Iran border, Shortughai in Afghanistan, Alamgirpur in UP and Daimabad in Maharashtra mark its limits.
| City | Details |
|---|---|
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh; the largest, 500 ha; name means mound of the dead; a large part destroyed by floods |
| Harappa | Punjab; 150 ha; 483 km from Mohenjo-daro, linked by the Indus |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana, on the Ghaggar; 250 ha, larger than Dholavira |
| Dholavira | Kutch, Gujarat; 50 ha; stone fortification, forts within forts |
| Chanhu-daro | About 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro |
| Lothal | Gujarat, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay |
| Kalibangan | Northern Rajasthan; means black bangles |
| Banawali | Hissar, Haryana; pre-Harappan and Harappan phases |
| Coastal cities | Sutkagen-dor and Surkotada, each with a citadel |
Later Harappan phase sites include Rangpur and Rojdi in Kathiawar. As an analytical point, the debates on who the Harappans were and what role the Sarasvati played remain open, since the script is undeciphered. The features of the cities are in Town Planning and Structures of the Harappan Civilisation, and the end of the culture in Decline of the Indus Civilisation.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Factual core Sites, discoverers and dates are asked often
- Chronology Phases and revised dates
- Debate Sarasvati role and authorship
What Came Next?
The next topic describes the town planning and structures of the Harappan civilisation. Next topic: Town Planning and Structures of the Harappan Civilisation.
Key People and Terms
- Harappa First site discovered
- Mohenjo-daro Largest city, mound of the dead
- Dholavira Stone-built city in Kutch
- Rakhigarhi Haryana site larger than Dholavira
- Meluha Mesopotamian name for the Indus region
- Hakra Dried river identified with the Sarasvati
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Discovered 1921; Marshall excavated Mohenjo-daro in 1931.
- Area about 1.3 million sq km.
- Nearly 2800 sites; 1022 mature.
- Mohenjo-daro 500 ha; Rakhigarhi 250 ha.
- Early 3000 to 2600; Mature to 1900.
Do Not Confuse With
- Harappa and Mohenjo-daro Punjab city versus Sindh city
- Dholavira and Rakhigarhi Stone city in Kutch versus larger Haryana site
- Early and mature Harappan Villages and towns versus planned urban phase
Memory Hook
Seal in 1853, dig in 1921; Baluchistan seeds, Hakra rivers, six great cities; early, mature, late.
Mains Angle
Questions on the origin and extent of the Harappan culture ask for sites and phases. These points add depth.
- Origin From Baluchistan and Hakra villages
- Extent Larger than Egypt or Mesopotamia
- Phases Early, mature, late
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Discuss the origin, extent and phases of the Indus Valley Civilisation.”
How to Answer
- Discovery 1853 seal; 1921 dig.
- Origin Baluchistan and Hakra.
- Extent Triangle, 1.3 million sq km.
- Phases Early, mature, late.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
When and how was the Harappan civilisation discovered?
Cunningham noticed a Harappan seal in 1853 without grasping its importance. Excavations by Daya Ram Sahni at Harappa in 1921 and R.D. Banerji at Mohenjo-daro revealed the civilisation, and Marshall directed large-scale work at Mohenjo-daro in 1931.
How large was the Harappan civilisation?
It covered about 1,299,600 sq km in a triangle from the Siwaliks and Meerut to the Arabian Sea and from the Makran coast to Alamgirpur. This was larger than Pakistan or ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, and no contemporary culture was as widespread.
What are the three phases of the Harappan civilisation?
The early phase is dated about 3000 to 2600 BCE, the mature urban phase about 2600 (or 2500) to 1900 BCE, and the late phase from about 1900 to 1700 BCE and later, a period of de-urbanisation.
Which were the major Harappan cities?
The major cities were Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Banawali, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi, spread over Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana. Mohenjo-daro was the largest at 500 hectares, followed by Rakhigarhi at 250 and Harappa at 150.
From where did the Harappan culture develop?
It developed from early farming settlements on the eastern fringe of Baluchistan from about 7000 BC and from pre-Harappan settlements in the Hakra area, with Rahman Dheri as an early planned town, in a time of heavy rainfall.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 The Harappan civilisation was discovered in 1921.
At Harappa in Pakistani Punjab.
2 Mohenjo-daro is the largest Harappan site.
It covers about 500 hectares.
3 Dholavira is larger than Rakhigarhi.
Rakhigarhi is larger.
4 The mature Harappan phase ended about 1900 BC.
A late phase followed.
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