Maarg Manthan · Topic 3.10

Decline of the Indus Civilisation

Ancient History › Indus Valley Civilisation · Topic 3.10

The urban Harappan culture declined from about 1900 BC: Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were gone by then, while degenerate forms lasted in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and western UP to about 1500 BC. Suggested causes include rivers shifting away from the Sarasvati about 1700 BC, falling rainfall, floods at Mohenjo-daro, the break in trade with Mesopotamia after Elam's rise (about 2000 BC), soil exhaustion and weakening elite control, not a single cause.

5 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Indus Valley Civilisation

At a Glance

Date Urban phase ends about 1900 BC
Fringe survival To about 1500 BC
River change Yamuna and Sutlej leave the Sarasvati about 1700 BC
Trade break Elam powerful about 2000 BC
Verdict Multiple causes
Exam link UPSC Prelims, Ancient History: Indus Valley Civilisation

Where Does It Fit?

This is the tenth topic of the category on the Indus Valley Civilisation. The previous topic covered Harappan art, and this one covers the end of the urban culture. The next and last topic of the category covers the post-Harappan phase and the problem of continuity. Previous topic: Harappan Pottery, Images, Terracotta Figurines and Stone Work.

When Did the Culture End?

In short: the great cities disappeared about 1900 BC, while the culture faded away slowly at the edges.

The mature Harappan culture existed broadly between 2500 and 1900 BC, and in this period it seems to have kept the same tools, weapons and houses, with the same town planning, seals, terracottas and long chert blades. The view of changelessness should not be pushed too far, as changes are seen in the pottery of Mohenjo-daro over time. By the nineteenth century BC the two important cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, had disappeared, but the Harappan culture at other sites faded out gradually and continued in a degenerate form on the outlying fringes of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and western UP until 1500 BC. Another account dates the decline from about 1900 BCE.

What Causes Have Been Suggested?

Cause	Argument
River changes	Around 1700 BC both the Yamuna and the Sutlej moved away from the Sarasvati or Hakra, so the water supply was lost; shifting river courses are also cited by other historians
Climate	Rainfall decreased at about that time; continuous drought and drying of resources are suggested
Floods	Some speak of dam formation on the Indus causing massive flooding at Mohenjo-daro; floods are also cited
Trade collapse	Elam emerged as a powerful state around 2000 BC and interrupted the supply of Harappan goods to Mesopotamia and of Mesopotamian imports, including tin; the end of beads exports left craftsmen jobless and the break in tin supply hurt bronze smiths
Soil exhaustion	Exhaustion of the soil may have reduced cereal production and starved the urban people
Loss of control	Once the aristocracy living in the cities failed to exercise control over crafts and cultivation, the culture collapsed
Invasions	Suggested by some, but see the discussion of new peoples in Post-Harappan Cultures and the Problem of Continuity

How Did the Culture Change on the Ground?

Feature	Mature phase	After decline
Towns	Planned cities with citadel and lower town	Disappeared; villages
Writing	Seals with the script	Not found
Bricks	Standard burnt bricks	Not used for centuries
Metal	Bronze tools	Copper and stone
Pottery	Red ware with black designs	Simpler designs
Weights	Standard cubical weights	Absent in later phase

The contrast shows that the collapse was a disappearance of an urban way of life, not of all people: village communities continued in many areas and kept some skills, such as the potter’s wheel.

What Do Historians Conclude?

It is difficult to account for the cultural collapse. The environmental factor may have been important, but failure in human activities cannot be discounted. The Harappan economy depended on long-distance trade for raw materials and on flood-plain farming for surplus, so both could be hit by changes in rivers and rainfall. People shifted to the southern and eastern directions from the Indus region in the course of time, according to another account. The urban features disappeared: systematic town planning, extensive brickwork, writing, standard weights and measures, the citadel and lower town distinction, bronze tools and painted red ware. As an analytical point, the explanation that best fits the evidence is a combination in which a loss of water and rain weakened farming, a break in foreign trade ruined crafts, and an elite unable to manage either lost control. The post-urban phase is described in Post-Harappan Cultures and the Problem of Continuity, the river changes in Ecology and Environment in Ancient India, and the trade in Trade and Commerce of the Harappan Civilisation.

Why Is This Topic Important?

Debated topic Multi-cause questions appear in Mains
Rivers and trade Environmental and economic explanations
Link Prepares continuity and Vedic questions

What Came Next?

The next topic describes the post-Harappan cultures and the problem of continuity. Next topic: Post-Harappan Cultures and the Problem of Continuity.

Key People and Terms

Sarasvati River identified with Ghaggar-Hakra
Elam State in south-west Iran
De-urbanisation Decline of towns
Post-urban Harappan Late phase after the cities
Hakra Dried river in Sindh and Cholistan
Inundation Flooding

Exam Corner

Points to Remember

Cities gone by 1900 BC; fringes to 1500 BC.
Yamuna and Sutlej left the Sarasvati about 1700 BC.
Elam rose about 2000 BC.
Trade break hurt bead and bronze workers.
No single cause.

Do Not Confuse With

Urban and post-urban phase Cities and writing versus villages
Mohenjo-daro floods and Sarasvati shift Local flooding versus regional river change
Elam and Mesopotamia Intermediary state versus final market

Memory Hook

Rivers wander, rain thins, Elam blocks trade, soil tires, rulers lose grip: the cities fade.

Mains Angle

Questions on decline ask for a balanced multi-cause answer. These points add depth.

Environment Rivers and rainfall
Economy Trade collapse and soil
Politics Loss of elite control

A Question You May Face

An original practice question, not a past paper question.

“Discuss the causes of the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation.”

How to Answer

Date About 1900 BC.
Nature River shifts and rainfall.
Economy Trade and soil.
Verdict Combined causes.

GS Relevance

Prelims: causes of Harappan decline. GS Paper 1: end of the Indus civilisation.

Frequently Asked Questions

When did the Indus civilisation decline?

The mature Harappan culture existed between 2500 and 1900 BC. By the nineteenth century BC the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had disappeared, although a degenerate form of the culture survived at the fringes until about 1500 BC.

How did river changes cause the decline?

Around 1700 BC the Yamuna and Sutlej moved away from the Sarasvati or Hakra, which meant a loss of water supply for the Harappan zone. Rainfall also decreased at about that time, weakening farming settlements.

How did trade affect the decline?

The emergence of Elam as a powerful state around 2000 BC interrupted the supply of Harappan goods to Mesopotamia and of imports like tin to the Indus. Bead makers lost their livelihood and bronze smiths lost their metal supply.

Did floods destroy Mohenjo-daro?

Some scholars speak of dam formation on the Indus that led to massive flooding of Mohenjo-daro, and a large part of the city was destroyed by floods. Floods are one of several suggested causes, not a full explanation.

Was there a single cause of the Harappan decline?

No. Historians point to several factors: shifting rivers, falling rainfall, floods, break in trade, soil exhaustion and failure of the urban elite to control crafts and cultivation. Failure in human activities cannot be discounted either.

PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis

1 The Yamuna and Sutlej moved away from the Sarasvati about 1700 BC.

True

This meant a loss of water.

2 The rise of Elam helped Harappan trade with Mesopotamia.

False

It interrupted the trade.

3 Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had disappeared by the nineteenth century BC.