Later Vedic Phase – Expansion, Iron and Agriculture
Ancient History › Vedic Age · Topic 4.5
In the later Vedic period (c. 1000 to 500 BC) the Aryans spread from Punjab over the Ganga-Yamuna doab, where the Kuru-Panchalas ruled from Hastinapur, and then east to Koshala and Videha. Iron weapons and horse chariots helped expansion; about 700 Painted Grey Ware sites show settled agriculture based on a wooden ploughshare, rice and wheat, new crafts and faint proto-urban beginnings at Hastinapur and Kaushambi.
6 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Vedic Age
At a Glance
- Date c. 1000 to 500 BC
- Area Upper Ganga basin, then Koshala and Videha
- Pottery Painted Grey Ware
- Metal Iron, called shyama or krishna ayas
- Crops Rice and wheat
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Ancient History: Vedic Age
Where Does It Fit?
This is the fifth topic of the category on the Vedic age. The previous topic covered Rig Vedic religion, and this one begins the later Vedic phase. The next topic covers later Vedic political organisation. Previous topic: Rig Vedic Gods and Religion.
How Did the Aryans Expand?
In short: the Aryans moved east from Punjab into the Ganga-Yamuna doab and beyond, and the Kuru-Panchala kingdom became their centre.
The later Vedic texts, the Samhitas of the Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas and the Brahmanas, were compiled in the upper Gangetic basin in c. 1000 to 500 BC. The Sama Veda sets Rig Vedic prayers to tune; the Yajur Veda has rituals as well as hymns; the Atharva Veda has charms and spells reflecting non-Aryan beliefs; the Brahmanas explain the social and religious meaning of rituals. In the same area and time archaeologists found nearly 700 Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites with iron weapons. The Bharatas and Purus combined to form the Kurus, who first lived between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati, then took Delhi and upper doab (Kurukshetra) and merged with the Panchalas of the central doab; their capital was Hastinapur in Meerut district. The Bharata war between Kauravas and Pandavas is supposed to have taken place around 950 BC, and Hastinapur excavations (900 to 500 BC) reveal only faint beginnings of town life, unlike the Mahabharata’s description, since the epic was finally compiled about the fourth century AD. Flooding of Hastinapur reportedly drove the remnants of the Kurus to Kaushambi. The Panchala kingdom (Bareilly, Badaun and Farrukhabad) was famed for philosopher kings and brahmana theologians. Around 500 BC the Vedic people spread east to Koshala and Videha, where they met copper-using people with black-and-red pots; many Munda words occur in the Brahmanas. They succeeded through iron weapons and horse-drawn chariots.
How Important Was Iron?
| Stage | Evidence |
|---|---|
| Early iron | Meteorite iron in Egypt about 3000 BC; pure iron in Mesopotamia and Anatolia; valued as a precious metal up to 1200 BC; iron objects at Lothal and in Afghanistan are really copper with iron ores |
| India | Pure iron at some Rajasthan sites and in Karnataka in the second half of the second millennium BC |
| About 1000 BC | Gandhara, Baluchistan, eastern Punjab, western UP, MP and Rajasthan |
| From about 800 BC | Iron arrowheads and spearheads common in western UP |
| Seventh century BC | Earliest iron implements in eastern UP and Videha; called shyama or krishna ayas, black metal |
The iron axe may have helped clear forests in the upper Ganga basin, which with 35 to 65 cm rainfall were perhaps not very dense. Iron’s role in the Gangetic plains is also discussed in Ecology and Environment in Ancient India.
What Was the Economy Like?
Few iron agricultural tools have been found, but agriculture was undoubtedly the chief means of subsistence. Texts speak of ploughs yoked to six, eight, twelve or even twenty-four oxen, perhaps an exaggeration. Ploughing was with a wooden ploughshare suited to the light soils of the upper plains, and cattle slaughter in sacrifices limited bullocks, so agriculture remained primitive though widespread. The Shatapatha Brahmana describes ploughing rituals, King Janaka of Videha is said to have lent a hand to the plough, and Balarama was called Haladhara. Eventually ploughing was assigned to the lower orders. Barley continued, but rice (vrihi) and wheat became the chief crops; rice remains at Hastinapur date to the eighth century BC and at Atranjikhera to about the same time, and lentils were grown. Arts and crafts diversified: smiths and smelters, coppersmiths (copper was used in PGW sites for war, hunting and ornaments), weaving confined to women but widespread, leather work, pottery and carpentry. Four pottery types were known: black-and-red, black-slipped, Painted Grey and red ware, with PGW the most distinctive, bowls and dishes for ritual or eating; glass bangles and jewellers suggest prestige goods.
How Did Settlements Change?
The term jana is common in the four Vedas, but janapada first occurs in the Brahmanas dating not earlier than 800 BC. Nearly 700 PGW sites, mostly in the upper Ganga basin, cover Kuru-Panchala, Madra (Punjab and Haryana) and Matsya (Rajasthan) areas; only Hastinapur, Atranjikhera and Noh are excavated. Habitation deposits one to three metres thick imply settlements lasting one to three centuries; these were new settlements with houses of mud-brick or wattle and daub on wooden poles. Because the wooden plough could not produce enough to feed non-farmers, the settlements did not contribute much to towns, though the term nagara occurs and Hastinapur and Kaushambi look proto-urban at the end of the period. Another account dates PGW from 1100 to 800 BCE with over 1000 sites and links it to Kuru-Panchala. As an analytical point, this phase turned a pastoral semi-nomadic society into a settled agrarian one that could support chiefs and priests with tribute, laying the base for the political and social changes in Later Vedic Political Organisation and Later Vedic Social Organisation – Varna, Family and Women.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Archaeology-text link PGW and iron
- Settlement shift Pastoral to agrarian
- Base for states Kuru-Panchala
What Came Next?
The next topic describes the political organisation of the later Vedic age. Next topic: Later Vedic Political Organisation.
Key People and Terms
- Samhita Collection of hymns
- Brahmana Ritual explanation text
- PGW Painted Grey Ware
- Kuru-Panchala Combined tribal kingdom in the doab
- Hastinapur Kuru capital
- Shyama ayas Black metal, iron
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Later Vedic: 1000 to 500 BC.
- About 700 PGW sites.
- Capital: Hastinapur.
- Iron common in western UP from 800 BC.
- Chief crops: rice and wheat.
Do Not Confuse With
- Jana and janapada Tribe versus territory
- Hastinapur and Kaushambi Kuru capital versus the later refuge near Allahabad
- PGW and OCP Iron-age grey ware versus earlier ochre ware
Memory Hook
East from the Seven Rivers to the doab; iron arms, grey pots, rice and wheat; Hastinapur, then Kaushambi.
Mains Angle
Questions on the later Vedic age ask about change from the Rig Vedic period. These points add depth.
- Expansion Doab to Koshala and Videha
- Economy Iron and agriculture
- Settlement PGW sites and proto-towns
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“How did iron and agriculture transform the later Vedic society?”
How to Answer
- Texts and PGW Source base.
- Expansion Doab and east.
- Iron Weapons and clearing.
- Farming Rice, wheat, ploughshare.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
Which texts belong to the later Vedic period?
The Samhitas of the Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas and the Brahmanas belong to the later Vedic period, composed in the upper Gangetic basin between about 1000 and 500 BC, together with later Aranyakas and Upanishads.
What is Painted Grey Ware?
Painted Grey Ware is a fine grey pottery with painted geometric designs, found at about 700 sites in the upper Gangetic basin and neighbouring areas. It is associated with the later Vedic people and with iron use, and with settled farming.
When did iron come into common use?
Pure iron appears in the second half of the second millennium BC in a few places, was used in many regions about 1000 BC, became common for weapons in western UP from about 800 BC and spread to eastern UP in the seventh century.
Which crops dominated the later Vedic economy?
Rice (vrihi) and wheat became the chief crops, while barley continued, with various lentils. Rice remains at Hastinapur date to the eighth century BC, and wheat later became the staple of Punjab and western UP.
Who were the Kuru-Panchalas?
The Kurus, formed from the Bharatas and Purus, joined the Panchalas of the central doab to rule the upper Gangetic basin from Hastinapur. The Bharata war between Kauravas and Pandavas is linked to this kingdom.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Rice and wheat became the chief crops in the later Vedic period.
Barley continued.
2 Janapada first occurs in the Rig Veda.
It appears first in the Brahmanas.
3 Hastinapur was the capital of the Kuru-Panchala kingdom.
It lay in Meerut district.
4 Iron was called shyama or krishna ayas in later Vedic texts.
It means black metal.
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