Later Vedic Religion, Rituals and Philosophy

At a Glance

• Supreme god Prajapati, the creator
• Rising gods Rudra and Vishnu
• Declining gods Indra and Agni
• Key rites Public and domestic yajnas
• Philosophy Upanishads, about 600 BC
• Exam link UPSC Prelims, Ancient History: Vedic Age

Where Does It Fit?

This is the eighth topic of the category on the Vedic age. The previous topic covered society, and this one covers religion and thought. The next topic covers Vedic literature as a whole. Previous topic: Later Vedic Social Organisation – Varna, Family and Women.

How Did the Pantheon Change?

In short: new gods replaced the Rig Vedic leaders as society became settled and divided into classes.

In the later Vedic period the upper doab became the cradle of Aryan culture under brahmanical influence, and all Vedic literature seems to have been compiled in the land of the Kuru-Panchalas. The cult of sacrifice, accompanied by rituals and formulae, was central. The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost importance. Prajapati, the creator, took the supreme position. Rudra, the god of animals, rose, and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the settled people. Some objects began to be worshipped as symbols of divinity, so signs of idolatry appear. As society divided into brahmanas, rajanyas, vaishyas and shudras, some orders got their own deities: Pushan, who tended cattle, came to be regarded as the god of the shudras. The Rig Vedic pantheon is in Rig Vedic Gods and Religion.

What Were the Rituals and Sacrifices?

People worshipped gods for the same material reasons as before, but the mode of worship changed. Prayers continued but ceased to be dominant; sacrifices became far more important, both public and domestic. Public sacrifices involved the king and the whole community, which often coincided with the tribe. Private sacrifices were performed by individuals in their houses, because the Vedic people maintained regular households, and oblations to Agni took the form of a ritual or sacrifice. Sacrifices involved the killing of animals on a large scale and the destruction of cattle wealth; the guest was known as goghna, one fed on cattle. They were accompanied by formulae that the sacrificer, known as the yajamana, the performer of yajna, had to utter correctly, as much of his success depended on the magical power of words. Some rituals were common to Indo-European peoples, others developed on Indian soil.

The formulae and sacrifices were invented and elaborated by the brahmana priests, who claimed a monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise and adopted some rituals from non-Aryans. Mercenary motives cannot be ruled out: as many as 240,000 cows were given as dakshina to the officiating priest in the rajasuya. Gold, cloth and horses were also given. Land as sacrificial fee is not established, and the Shatapatha Brahmana’s claim that the four directions be given to the priest in the ashvamedha only shows priestly greed.

What Was the Upanishadic Reaction?

Towards the end of the Vedic period a strong reaction arose against priestly domination and against cults and rituals, especially in the land of the Panchalas and Videha, where the Upanishads were compiled around 600 BC. These philosophical texts criticised rituals and stressed the value of right belief and knowledge. They emphasised that knowledge of the self or atman should be acquired and its relation with Brahma understood. Brahma emerged as the supreme entity, comparable to the powerful kings of the period. Some kshatriya princes in Panchala and Videha also cultivated this thought and created an atmosphere for reforming priest-dominated religion. Their teaching promoted stability and integration: stress on the changelessness, indestructibility and immortality of the atman served the cause of stability needed to sustain the rising power of the kshatriya raja, and the relation of atman with Brahma fostered allegiance to a superior authority.

As an analytical point, the Upanishadic movement was an internal critique that prepared the ground for Jainism and Buddhism, described in Causes of the Rise of New Religious Movements in the Sixth Century BC, and it later grew into the systems explained in Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. The literature itself is in Vedic Literature – Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas.

Why Is This Topic Important?

• Shift in worship Prayer to sacrifice
• Philosophy Origins of atman and Brahma ideas
• Reaction Leads to new religious movements

What Came Next?

The next topic describes Vedic literature, the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas. Next topic: Vedic Literature – Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Vedangas.

Key People and Terms

• Prajapati Creator god
• Yajamana Performer of sacrifice
• Dakshina Gift to the priest
• Atman Self
• Brahma Supreme entity
• Goghna Guest fed on cattle

Exam Corner

Mains Angle

Questions on later Vedic religion ask how and why it changed. These points add depth.

• Gods New pantheon
• Rituals Priestly monopoly
• Philosophy Upanishadic critique