Chalcolithic Cultures of India
Ancient History › Prehistoric and Chalcolithic Cultures · Topic 2.7
Chalcolithic means copper-stone age. Its rural cultures included Ahar-Banas (c. 2100 to 1500 BC), Kayatha, Malwa (1700 to 1200 BC) and Jorwe (1400 to 700 BC, with Inamgaon and Daimabad) in the west and centre, plus Chirand and Pandu Rajar Dhibi in the east. People used copper and stone, painted black-and-red pottery, grew wheat, rice and pulses, and showed early inequality, but lacked ploughs, bronze, writing and cities.
6 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Prehistoric and Chalcolithic Cultures
At a Glance
- Meaning Copper-stone phase
- Ahar c. 2100 to 1500 BC, Banas valley
- Malwa 1700 to 1200 BC
- Jorwe 1400 to 700 BC, Maharashtra
- Pottery Black-and-red ware, painted
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Ancient History: Prehistoric and Chalcolithic Cultures
Where Does It Fit?
This is the seventh topic of the category on prehistoric and chalcolithic cultures. The previous topic covered Neolithic settlements, and this one covers the copper-using cultures. The next topic covers copper hoards and the Ochre-Coloured Pottery culture. Previous topic: Neolithic Settlements – Baluchistan, Kashmir, Chirand and South India.
What Was the Chalcolithic Phase and Where Did It Spread?
In short: the Chalcolithic phase combined stone tools with copper, in rural communities across many regions.
At the end of the Neolithic, copper became the first metal used, and cultures based on copper and stone tools are called Chalcolithic. The people mostly used stone and copper but occasionally low-grade bronze and even iron. They were rural, living on hilly land and rivers, whereas the Harappans used bronze and urbanised on the produce of the Indus flood plains. Chalcolithic cultures preceded, coexisted with and followed the Harappan culture in different parts of India.
| Culture and region | Sites and dates |
|---|---|
| Ahar (south-east Rajasthan) | Ahar (ancient Tambavati, place of copper) and Gilund in the Banas valley; c. 2100 to 1500 BC; copper smelting and metallurgy from the start; stone houses at Ahar; virtually no microliths |
| Malwa (central India) | Kayatha (c. 2000 to 1800 BC), Eran, Navdatoli on the Narmada, Nagda; Malwa culture 1700 to 1200 BC; Malwa ware the richest Chalcolithic ceramics |
| Jorwe (Maharashtra) | Type-site Jorwe on the Pravara; Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon; 1400 to 700 BC; about 200 sites |
| Vindhya and east | Sites in Allahabad district; Chirand, Senuwar, Sonpur, Taradih, Khairadih, Narhan; Pandu Rajar Dhibi and Mahishdal in West Bengal; c. 1500 to 700 BC |
| South India | Chalcolithic traits entered Neolithic sites, so the culture is called Neolithic-Chalcolithic |
Ganeshwar near the Khetri copper mines (2800 to 2200 BC) supplied copper objects to Harappa and was a pre-Harappan Chalcolithic culture; pre-Harappan strata at Kalibangan, Banawali and Kot Diji are also Chalcolithic. Some Chalcolithic farming communities moved to the Indus flood plains, learnt bronze technology and built cities.
How Did Chalcolithic People Live?
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Tools | Stone blades and bladelets and stone axes; copper flat axes, bangles, chisels and sheets; Ahar had many copper objects |
| Pottery | Black-and-red ware from about 2000 BC, wheel-made and sometimes painted in white; channel-spouted pots, dishes-on-stand and bowls-on-stand; the first painted pottery; lota and thali |
| Crops | Wheat, rice, barley, bajra, lentil, black gram, green gram, grass pea, ber, linseed; cotton in the black cotton soil of the Deccan; Navdatoli has the largest range of cereals; fish and rice in the east |
| Animals | Cattle, sheep, goat, pig, buffalo; hunting of deer; camel bones; no acquaintance with the horse |
| Houses | Wattle and daub, mud brick; burnt brick rare; Daimabad of about 20 hectares for around 4000 people, fortified, with many bronze goods; Inamgaon of over a hundred houses, fortified with a moat |
| Crafts | Coppersmiths, bead-makers (carnelian, steatite, quartz), spinners and weavers with spindle whorls, cotton, flax and silk threads; potters, smiths, ivory carvers, lime makers and terracotta artisans at Inamgaon |
What Do Burials, Religion and Society Show?
In Maharashtra people buried the dead in urns beneath the house floor in a north-south position, with pots and copper objects, with no separate cemeteries as at Harappa. Terracotta female figures suggest veneration of a mother goddess, one resembling West Asian figures at Inamgaon, and stylised bull terracottas in Malwa and Rajasthan suggest a bull cult. Settlement patterns and burials point to social inequality: Jorwe settlements range from five to twenty hectares, forming a two-tier hierarchy, with a chief and kinsmen in rectangular houses and others in round huts, and at Inamgaon craftsmen lived on the fringes and the chief in the centre. Some children at Chandoli and Nevasa were buried with copper necklaces and others only with pots, and at Kayatha one house held 29 copper bangles. A five-room house and granary at Inamgaon may have been a chief’s house and store for tribute in kind.
What Were Its Importance, End and Limits?
The Chalcolithic people founded the first large villages in peninsular India and grew far more cereals than the Neolithic communities. Their cultures in central and western India disappeared by about 1200 BC, except Jorwe which lasted until 700 BC, and the eclipse in western India is attributed to declining rainfall from about 1200 BC and the difficulty of using the digging stick in black clayey soil. In eastern red-soil areas the Chalcolithic phase was followed directly by the iron phase, and in the south it became the Megalithic culture using iron. The limits were serious: no ploughs or hoes, only digging sticks weighted with perforated stone discs for jhum cultivation; cattle slaughtered for meat rather than milk; high infant mortality shown by many child burials; limited copper supply; no knowledge of mixing tin to make bronze; no writing and no cities. They gained little from Harappan technology although most were younger than the Indus civilisation. As an analytical point, the Chalcolithic was an important rural step but remained a village world; the urban Bronze Age is seen in Origin, Extent and Phases of the Harappan Civilisation, and the copper industry continues in Copper Hoards and Ochre-Coloured Pottery Culture.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Sites and cultures Ahar, Malwa and Jorwe are commonly asked
- Features Pottery, crops and inequality
- Limits Why it did not become a civilisation
What Came Next?
The next topic describes copper hoards and the Ochre-Coloured Pottery culture. Next topic: Copper Hoards and Ochre-Coloured Pottery Culture.
Key People and Terms
- Chalcolithic Copper-stone age
- Ahar Banas valley culture
- Jorwe Maharashtra culture
- Black-and-red ware Wheel-made painted pottery
- Wattle and daub Walls of mud over woven sticks
- Jhum Slash-and-burn cultivation
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Ahar: 2100 to 1500 BC; old name Tambavati.
- Malwa culture: 1700 to 1200 BC.
- Jorwe: 1400 to 700 BC.
- Daimabad: largest Jorwe site.
- Navdatoli: widest range of cereals.
Do Not Confuse With
- Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Copper-stone villages versus tin-bronze cities
- Ahar and Jorwe Rajasthan copper culture versus Maharashtra culture
- Daimabad and Inamgaon Largest Jorwe site versus Pune district chief’s house site
Memory Hook
Copper and stone, black-and-red pots, wattle homes, urn graves; Ahar, Malwa, Jorwe; no plough, no city.
Mains Angle
Questions on the Chalcolithic ask for features and limits. These points add depth.
- Spread Regional cultures with different dates
- Life Villages, crops, crafts, early inequality
- Limits Tools, copper supply, mortality
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Describe the main features and limitations of the Chalcolithic cultures of India.”
How to Answer
- Definition Copper-stone phase.
- Cultures Ahar, Malwa, Jorwe.
- Life Pottery, crops, burials.
- Limits No plough or writing.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What does Chalcolithic mean?
Chalcolithic means the copper-stone phase. Cultures that used stone tools along with copper objects, mostly in rural settings, fall under it, and in India they existed before, alongside and after the Harappan culture in different regions.
What is the Jorwe culture?
The Jorwe culture, c. 1400 to 700 BC, was a Chalcolithic culture covering most of Maharashtra, named after Jorwe on the Pravara river. It had about 200 sites, including Daimabad, Nevasa and Inamgaon, and showed a two-tier settlement hierarchy.
What was the Ahar culture?
The Ahar culture of the Banas valley in south-east Rajasthan, c. 2100 to 1500 BC, practised copper smelting and metallurgy from the start. Ahar was anciently called Tambavati, place of copper, and Gilund was a regional centre.
What pottery did Chalcolithic people use?
They used wheel-turned black-and-red ware, widespread from about 2000 BC and sometimes painted with white linear designs. They were the first to use painted pottery, and made channel-spouted pots and dishes-on-stand for cooking, eating, drinking and storage.
What were the limitations of the Chalcolithic cultures?
They lacked ploughs and hoes, used digging sticks, had limited copper and no bronze, and could not write or build cities. Cattle were not milked, and many child burials show high infant mortality, so the culture did not promote longevity.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Daimabad is the largest known Jorwe site.
It covers about 20 hectares.
2 Chalcolithic people knew the horse well.
They were generally not acquainted with it.
3 Ahar was anciently called Tambavati.
It means place of copper.
4 Chalcolithic farmers used iron ploughs.
Neither plough nor hoe has been found.
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