Social and Cultural Life in the 18th Century Regional Kingdoms
Medieval History › Regional Kingdoms · Topic 3.16
Society in the eighteenth-century regional kingdoms kept its traditional outlook: caste and patriarchy shaped life, education stayed religious and literary, and women faced purdah, sati and child marriage. Yet new courts at Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Murshidabad and Travancore patronised architecture, painting, music and regional literature, so culture flourished even as the empire declined.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Regional Kingdoms
At a Glance
- Education Pathshalas, maktabs, tols and madrasahs
- Society Caste, patriarchy, divisions among Muslims
- Women Purdah, sati, child marriage, dowry
- Courts Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Murshidabad, Kashmir
- Arts Painting, Urdu poetry, regional literature
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: Regional Kingdoms
Where Does It Fit?
This is the last topic of the category on regional kingdoms. The previous topic described the economy of the eighteenth-century regional states, and this topic covers their social and cultural life, which closes the story of the medieval period. The next category covers the Vijayanagara Empire. Previous topic: Economic Conditions in the 18th Century Regional Kingdoms.
How Was Education Organised?
In short: education in the regional kingdoms was traditional, religious and literary, and it left out the natural sciences and technology that were advancing in the West.
Education was limited to literature, law, religion, philosophy and logic. It had little place for physical and natural sciences, technology and geography, and heavy reliance on ancient learning discouraged original thought. Elementary education was widespread among Hindus and Muslims, in pathshalas and maktabs, and taught reading, writing and arithmetic. Lower-caste children sometimes attended, but girls rarely did.
| Level | Institution | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Elementary, Hindu | Pathshala | Reading, writing, arithmetic |
| Elementary, Muslim | Maktab | Reading, writing, arithmetic |
| Higher, Hindu | Chatuspathi or tol | Sanskrit centres at Kasi, Tirhut, Nadia and Utkala |
| Higher, Muslim | Madrasah | Persian and Arabic; Azimabad (Patna) a Persian centre |
How Was Society Organised?
Society had a broad cultural unity but was divided by caste, religion, region, tribe and language. The family was patriarchal. Caste was the main feature of Hindu life, with many sub-castes that fixed status, and caste councils and panchayats enforced the rules. Occupation was mostly decided by caste, but exceptions were common, so status was fluid in some places. Muslims were divided by caste, race, tribe and status as well. Sunni and Shia nobles were kept apart, so were Irani, Afghan, Turani and Hindustani Muslim officials, and the sharif Muslims often looked down on the lower-class ajlaf. As an analytical point, these divisions made it hard for any regional state to build a common loyalty.
What Was the Position of Women and the Slave?
Women had little individuality in the patriarchal family, except in some groups in Kerala. Upper-class women stayed home, and lower-class women worked in fields. Purdah, sati, child marriage and polygamy hindered women, and the lot of the Hindu widow was miserable. Dowry was widespread in Bengal and Rajputana. Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber and the Maratha general Parshuram Bhau tried to promote widow remarriage but failed.
European travellers reported that slaves were widely found in India. Some people sold their children in distress, and higher-class Rajputs, Khatris and Kayasthas generally kept women slaves for domestic work. Slaves were usually treated as hereditary servants, and children of slave marriages were considered free. The European companies increased the slave trade by buying slaves from the markets of Bengal, Assam and Bihar, and Abyssinian slaves were sold at Surat, Madras and Calcutta.
Which Arts and Cultures Flourished in the New Courts?
| Place or field | Achievement |
|---|---|
| Lucknow | Asaf-ud-Daula built the Bada Imambara in 1784 |
| Jaipur | Sawai Jai Singh built the pink city and five observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura and Ujjain, and prepared the Zij Muhammad Shahi |
| Kerala | Padmanabhapuram Palace with architecture and mural paintings |
| Painting | Rajputana and Kangra schools showed new vitality |
| Urdu | Poets Mir, Sauda and Nazir |
| Regional languages | Malayalam under Travancore with Kanchan Nambiar; Tamil sittar poetry with Tayumanavar (1706 to 1744); Punjabi Heer Ranjha by Warris Shah; Sindhi Risalo by Shah Abdul Latif |
The decline of the imperial Mughals forced talented people to seek patronage at the new state courts, such as those of Hyderabad, Lucknow, Jaipur, Murshidabad, Patna and Kashmir. For the fuller treatment, see Society, Education, Art and Culture on the Eve of British Rule.
What Does This Show About the Close of the Medieval Period?
The regional courts show a society that was creative in arts and literature but did not change its educational base or its social hierarchy. This helps explain how the English could introduce a different education and administration later, and why social reform became the next great theme of Indian history.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- End of an era Closes the story of medieval India
- Culture Regional courts and languages are common exam facts
- Social reform Gives context for the reform movements that follow
What Came Next?
The next category covers the Vijayanagara Empire, beginning with the sources for its history. Next topic: Sources for Vijayanagara History (Foreign Travellers’ Accounts – Nicolo Conti, Domingo Paes, Abdur Razzaq).
Key People and Terms
- Pathshala Hindu elementary school
- Maktab Muslim elementary school
- Tol or chatuspathi Sanskrit school in Bengal and Bihar
- Sharif and ajlaf Upper and lower Muslim groups
- Zij Muhammad Shahi Astronomical tables of Sawai Jai Singh
- Bada Imambara Lucknow monument of 1784
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Elementary schools: pathshala and maktab.
- Bada Imambara: 1784, Asaf-ud-Daula.
- Jai Singh built five observatories.
- Warris Shah: Heer Ranjha.
- Tayumanavar (1706 to 1744) protested against temple abuses and caste.
Do Not Confuse With
- Sharif and ajlaf Upper-class versus lower-class Muslims
- Pathshala and tol Elementary Hindu school versus higher Sanskrit school
- Kangra and Rajput painting Two schools of the hills and plains
Memory Hook
Pathshalas teach three Rs, courts patronise poets, Jai Singh watches the stars, widows still suffer.
Mains Angle
Questions on this theme ask for a balanced view of eighteenth-century culture. These points add depth.
- Education Traditional and religious
- Society Caste and gender divisions
- Culture Strong regional patronage
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Describe the social and cultural life of the eighteenth-century regional kingdoms.”
How to Answer
- Education Pathshalas, maktabs and tols.
- Society Caste, women and slaves.
- Arts New courts and regional literature.
- Verdict Creative but traditional.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
How were schools organised in the eighteenth century?
Hindus had pathshalas and Muslims maktabs for reading, writing and arithmetic, and higher learning took place in tols or chatuspathis and in madrasahs. Education left out natural sciences and technology, and girls rarely attended school.
What was the position of women in this period?
Women had little individuality in the patriarchal family. Purdah, sati, child marriage and polygamy hindered them, widows had a miserable life, and dowry was common in Bengal and Rajputana. Attempts at widow remarriage by Sawai Jai Singh and by Parshuram Bhau failed to change the custom.
What did Sawai Jai Singh build?
Sawai Jai Singh of Amber built the pink city of Jaipur and five astronomical observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Benares, Mathura and Ujjain. He also prepared a set of astronomical tables called the Zij Muhammad Shahi.
Which regional literatures developed?
Malayalam grew under Travancore with Kanchan Nambiar, Tamil sittar poetry with Tayumanavar, Punjabi with Warris Shah's Heer Ranjha, and Sindhi with Shah Abdul Latif's Risalo. Urdu poetry also flourished in these courts with poets such as Mir, Sauda and Nazir.
How were Muslims divided in society?
Muslims were divided by caste, race, tribe and status. Sunni and Shia nobles were kept apart, Irani, Afghan, Turani and Hindustani Muslims stood apart, and the sharif often looked down on the lower-class ajlaf, much as higher-caste Hindus treated lower castes.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Asaf-ud-Daula built the Bada Imambara at Lucknow in 1784.
It reflects Awadh's court culture.
2 Sawai Jai Singh built five astronomical observatories.
He prepared the Zij Muhammad Shahi.
3 Girls regularly attended elementary schools in the eighteenth century.
Girls were rarely present.
4 Warris Shah composed the Punjabi epic Heer Ranjha.
It is a romantic epic.
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