Scientific Knowledge and Legal System of the Delhi Sultanate
Medieval History › The Delhi Sultanate · Topic 2.12
Science under the Delhi Sultanate grew mainly through exchange: new crafts such as paper-making, the spinning wheel and the astrolabe came from the Islamic world, and Sanskrit works on medicine, music, mathematics and astronomy were translated into Persian. The legal system rested on the sharia for Muslims, personal law for Hindus, and the sultans' own regulations.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · The Delhi Sultanate
At a Glance
- Science Exchange and translation, with new crafts and instruments
- Key text Mahendra Suri’s Yantraraja (1370), the first Sanskrit astrolabe treatise
- Translators Zia Nakhshabi and Firoz Tughlaq’s translators
- Courts Qazis applied the sharia in civil cases
- State law Zawabit, the sultans’ regulations
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: The Delhi Sultanate
Where Does It Fit?
This is the twelfth topic of the category on the Delhi Sultanate. The previous topic described society and culture, and this topic covers learning and law. The next topic covers Amir Khusrau, the great poet of the Sultanate. Previous topic: Purdah spread; property rights improved Muslim society Divided into Turks, Iranians,…">Society and Culture During the Delhi Sultanate.
How Did Science Develop Under the Sultanate?
In short: scientific knowledge in the Sultanate grew mainly through the meeting of Indian, Arab and Persian traditions, and through translation and new tools and crafts.
The Turks brought or spread crafts and tools such as paper-making, glass-making, the spinning wheel, an improved loom, the carder’s bow and an improved rahat for lifting water. Paper was known to the Chinese in the second century and to the Arabs in the eighth, and it reached Europe only in the fourteenth century. A superior mortar let builders raise real arches and domes. Indian scholars also took advantage of paper to copy older texts, and some of the oldest paper manuscripts of the Ramayana and Mahabharata date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
What Was Translated and Why Does It Matter?
| Work or area | Detail |
|---|---|
| Tuti Nama | Zia Nakhshabi, who died in 1350, turned Sanskrit parrot stories into Persian in the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq; it became popular and was translated into Turkish and European languages |
| Kok Shastra | The old Indian treatise on sexology, translated into Persian by Zia Nakhshabi |
| Firoz Tughlaq’s translations | Sanskrit books on medicine, music and mathematics put into Persian |
| Music | Ragadarpan, an Indian classical work, translated into Persian |
| Into Sanskrit | Some works on mathematics, astronomy and medicine, and on the astrolabe, were translated into Sanskrit |
| Kashmir | Zain-ul-Abidin had the Rajatarangini and the Mahabharata translated into Persian |
Firoz Tughlaq was the first ruler to have Hindu religious works translated from Sanskrit into Persian. Through these translations the Sultanate court learned about Hindu ideas and practices.
What Is the Yantraraja?
Mahendra Suri, a Jain astronomer attached to Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s court, wrote the Yantraraja in 1370. It is the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on the astrolabe, an instrument for fixing the height of heavenly bodies, and it drew on Arabic and Islamic astrolabe knowledge. Firoz’s interest in astronomy is documented, and the Brihatsamhita was put into Persian under him. As an analytical point, the Yantraraja shows science moving in both directions, from the Islamic world into Sanskrit and from Sanskrit into Persian, which a purely religious reading of the period would miss.
How Did the Legal System Work?
The sultan was the final court of appeal, and he appointed judges. Direct appeal to him was possible against officials. The chief qazi was head of the department of justice and was generally also the chief sadr. Qazis were appointed in places with a sizeable Muslim population and applied civil law based on the Muslim law, the sharia. Hindus were governed by their own personal laws, which village panchayats and caste leaders dispensed. Criminal law followed regulations framed by the rulers, called zawabit. Later summaries mention the muhtasib, a market and public morals officer, and the diwan-i-mazalim, a court of redress, but the details vary by source.
Barani wrote that sultans like Alauddin made laws by the needs of the state, and that state law prevailed when it clashed with the sharia. Digests of Islamic law were prepared in Persian with the help of Indian scholars, the best known in the reign of Firoz Tughlaq. Firoz also banned cruel punishments such as cutting off hands, feet and noses. The administration of justice by qazis grew in importance during Tughlaq rule.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Cultural exchange Shows two-way knowledge flow
- Law Explains the mix of sharia, personal law and state regulations
- Exam facts Yantraraja, Tuti Nama and zawabit are frequent
What Came Next?
The next topic covers the poet Amir Khusrau and his contribution to literature and music. Next topic: Amir Khusrau’s Contribution to Literature and Music.
Key People and Terms
- Yantraraja Sanskrit astrolabe treatise, 1370
- Tuti Nama Book of the Parrot, Persian
- Mahendra Suri Jain astronomer at Firoz’s court
- Zawabit Sultans’ regulations
- Qazi Judge
- Muhtasib Market and morals officer
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Yantraraja: 1370, Mahendra Suri.
- Zia Nakhshabi: Tuti Nama (died 1350).
- Firoz translated Sanskrit works into Persian.
- Qazis applied the sharia to Muslims.
- Zawabit supplemented the sharia.
Do Not Confuse With
- Zawabit and sharia State regulations versus Islamic law
- Tuti Nama and Rajatarangini Persian parrot tales versus the Sanskrit chronicle of Kashmir
- Qazi and sadr Judge versus head of religious endowments, often the same man
Memory Hook
Paper arrives, astrolabe turns, parrot speaks Persian, qazi judges, zawabit rules.
Mains Angle
Questions on this theme ask about exchange between traditions. These points add depth.
- Exchange Translations in both directions
- Law Pluralism: sharia, personal law and state regulations
- Limits Science and law were shaped by court patronage
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Discuss the nature of the legal system and the exchange of scientific knowledge under the Delhi Sultanate.”
How to Answer
- Science New crafts and instruments.
- Translation Tuti Nama, Yantraraja, Firoz.
- Law Sharia, personal law, zawabit.
- Assess Pluralism and court patronage.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Yantraraja?
The Yantraraja is the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on the astrolabe, written in 1370 by the Jain astronomer Mahendra Suri at the court of Firoz Shah Tughlaq. It shows the use of Islamic astrolabe knowledge in Sanskrit scholarship.
What was the Tuti Nama?
The Tuti Nama, or Book of the Parrot, was written by Zia Nakhshabi, who died in 1350. It put Sanskrit stories told by a parrot to a woman into Persian in the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and became popular, and it was translated into Turkish and European languages.
What did Firoz Tughlaq translate?
Firoz Tughlaq was the first ruler to have Hindu religious works translated from Sanskrit into Persian. Books on medicine, music and mathematics were also translated, and Indian classical works such as the Ragadarpan were rendered into Persian during his reign.
Which laws applied to Hindus in the Sultanate?
Hindus were governed by their own personal laws, which village panchayats and caste leaders applied. The qazis applied the sharia to civil disputes of Muslims, and criminal law followed regulations framed by the rulers, the zawabit, so the legal order was plural.
What were the zawabit?
Zawabit were the regulations that the sultans framed to supplement the sharia. Alauddin Khalji told the qazi that he made laws according to the needs of the state, which led Barani to call the state worldly, jahandari, and not strictly Islamic.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Mahendra Suri wrote the first Sanskrit treatise on the astrolabe.
The work is the Yantraraja of 1370.
2 Zia Nakhshabi wrote the Tuti Nama in Persian.
He drew on Sanskrit stories.
3 Hindus were judged by the sharia in all matters in the Sultanate.
They followed their own personal law, applied by panchayats and caste leaders.
4 Firoz Tughlaq banned punishments such as cutting off hands and noses.
He also set up hospitals.
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