Military Organisation in the Regional Kingdoms
Medieval History › Regional Kingdoms · Topic 3.11
The armies of the regional kingdoms combined cavalry, mounted archers, elephants and growing use of artillery. Their strength depended on imported horses, on nobles or nayaks who supplied troops in return for land or salary, and on forts. The Bahmanis used guns in 1367, Vijayanagara copied sultanate cavalry, and Gujarat sought Ottoman and Egyptian naval help against the Portuguese.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Regional Kingdoms
At a Glance
- Core arm Cavalry, with mounted archers
- Gap Horses had to be imported
- New arm Artillery, first used in 1367 in the Deccan
- Troop supply Nobles and nayaks maintained contingents
- Sea Gujarat and the Ottomans against the Portuguese
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Medieval History: Regional Kingdoms
Where Does It Fit?
This is the eleventh topic of the category on regional kingdoms. The previous topic covered the economy that paid for armies, and this topic describes how those armies were organised. The next topic turns to the eighteenth century and the rise of autonomous powers after the Mughal decline. Previous topic: Economic Conditions in the Regional Kingdoms.
What Did a Regional Army Look Like?
In short: the regional armies rested on cavalry and mounted archers, supported by elephants, infantry and, from the later fourteenth century, guns.
The Deccan states and Vijayanagara fought with horsemen, foot soldiers and elephants. Both depended on horses imported through ports such as Goa, since good horses were not bred in India. Ferishta recorded that Deva Raya II felt the Bahmani army’s superiority came from its sturdier horses and its large body of mounted archers. Armies relied on forts as bases, and fort sieges, like those of Girnar and Champaner, took months.
How Did the Bahmani and Vijayanagara Armies Differ?
| Kingdom | Organisation |
|---|---|
| Bahmani | Nobles paid by cash or by a jagir; a noble with a contingent of 500 horses got a salary of 1,00,000 huns a year; each province had khalisa land for the sultan; superior artillery and cavalry won the war of 1367 |
| Vijayanagara (Deva Raya I) | Said to keep 10,000 Muslims in his army |
| Vijayanagara (Deva Raya II) | Reorganised the army on sultanate lines: enlisted 2,000 Muslim horsemen with jagirs, had Hindu soldiers learn archery, and, by Ferishta’s figures, fielded 60,000 archers, 80,000 cavalry and 2,00,000 infantry; these figures may be exaggerated |
| Vijayanagara nayaks | Chiefs who held amaram territory had to maintain fixed numbers of foot, horses and elephants and pay money to the centre |
The large cavalry and standing army made Vijayanagara more centralised than earlier Hindu kingdoms, but it strained the state because most good horses were imported and the Arab traders charged high prices.
How Were the Rajput and Other Armies Raised?
Rajput armies were built on clan loyalty, with chiefs and sub-chiefs holding land in return for service of men and horses. Rana Kumbha held Kumbhalgarh against sieges by Gujarat forces, and Rana Pratap, after Haldighati, turned to guerrilla warfare and the support of the Bhils, a method later used by Malik Ambar and Shivaji. In Kashmir, musket-making had developed by the time of Zainul Abidin. Malwa fought its neighbours with troops from many groups, including Rajputs, whom Hushang Shah welcomed.
What Was the Role of Naval and Gun Warfare?
Gujarat faced a new problem at sea. In 1509 a fleet sent by the sultan of Egypt and joined by Gujarat’s ships was routed by the Portuguese. In 1529 an Ottoman fleet under Sulaiman Rais came to help Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, and two Turkish officials were made governors of Surat and Diu. One of them, Rumi Khan, became a famous master gunner and repelled a Portuguese attack on Daman and Diu in 1531. In 1538 an Ottoman fleet of 45 galleons with 20,000 men besieged Diu but retired after two months when a Portuguese armada approached. The Turks later made peace with the Portuguese in 1566. Bijapur and Ahmadnagar attacked the Portuguese at Goa and Chaul in 1570 without success, since the Portuguese navy was too strong.
What Does the Pattern Show?
As an analytical point, regional armies were strong on land and weak at sea. Artillery, forts and cavalry decided inland wars, but none of the states built a navy able to challenge the Portuguese, and none controlled horse supply on its own. Their reliance on nobles with their own contingents also limited unity. The Bahmani-Vijayanagara treaty of 1367 on sparing unarmed people is a reminder that these wars were costly and destructive.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Military change Introduction of artillery and its impact
- Horse dependence Explains the fight over ports
- Naval weakness Link to Portuguese success
What Came Next?
The next topic covers the rise of autonomous regional powers after the Mughal decline in the early eighteenth century. Next topic: Rise of Autonomous Regional Powers Following the Decline of Mughal Central Authority in the Early 18th Century.
Key People and Terms
- Amaram Territory held by a nayak for service
- Nayak Military chief of Vijayanagara
- Hun Gold coin
- Rumi Khan Ottoman-born master gunner at Diu
- Khalisa Land for the sultan’s expenses
- Mounted archers Cavalry that shot from horseback
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Artillery used in the 1367 Bahmani-Vijayanagara war.
- Deva Raya II enlisted 2,000 Muslim cavalry.
- Rumi Khan defended Diu in 1531.
- Ottoman fleet besieged Diu in 1538.
- Horses came through Goa.
Do Not Confuse With
- Bahmani nobles and Vijayanagara nayaks Salaried or jagir-paid nobles versus land-holders with service duties
- Diu 1531 and Diu 1538 Rumi Khan’s defence versus the Ottoman siege
- Haldighati and guerrilla warfare Pitched battle in 1576 versus Pratap’s later method
Memory Hook
Horses from Goa, guns at Mudkal, archers for Deva Raya, Rumi Khan at Diu.
Mains Angle
Questions on this theme ask about military change and its limits. These points add depth.
- Technology Guns, mounted archers and forts
- Organisation Nobles and nayaks supplying troops
- Limits No navy; dependent on imported horses
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Discuss how the regional kingdoms organised their armies and why they failed to check the Portuguese at sea.”
How to Answer
- Army Cavalry, archers, elephants.
- Technology Artillery from 1367.
- Organisation Salaries, jagirs and amaram.
- Sea Ottoman help and failure at Diu.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
When was artillery first used in the Deccan?
Artillery was used for the first time in the war between the Bahmani sultan and Bukka I's Vijayanagara in 1367. The Bahmani victory was due to superior artillery and more efficient cavalry, and both sides were exhausted by the end.
How did Deva Raya II improve the Vijayanagara army?
Deva Raya II reorganised the army with features from the sultanate armies. He enlisted 2,000 Muslim cavalrymen and gave them jagirs, and ordered Hindu soldiers to learn archery from them, to match the sturdier horses and mounted archers of the Bahmanis.
What were nayaks in Vijayanagara?
Nayaks, also called palaiyagars, were military chiefs who held territory called amaram with fixed revenue. They had to maintain fixed numbers of foot soldiers, horses and elephants for the state and pay money to the centre, and they were powerful and hard to control.
Why were horses important for regional armies?
Good horses were not bred in India, so they were imported from Iran and Iraq, mostly through Goa. A strong cavalry therefore depended on ports and on traders who charged high prices, which is why states fought for the Konkan ports.
Who was Rumi Khan?
Rumi Khan was a Turkish officer given an Indian name who served as governor of Surat and became a master gunner. He repulsed a Portuguese attack on Daman and Diu in 1531 under Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Artillery was first used in the Deccan wars in 1367.
Both sides used it.
2 Deva Raya II enlisted Muslim cavalrymen into the Vijayanagara army.
He gave 2,000 of them jagirs.
3 Rumi Khan was a Portuguese gunner.
He was an Ottoman-born gunner in Gujarat's service.
4 Nayaks in Vijayanagara held amaram land in return for military service.
They paid a sum to the centre too.
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