Uranium and Thorium
Geography › Mineral and Energy Resources · Topic 21.16
Uranium and thorium are radioactive minerals used as nuclear fuel. Uranium is found in pitchblende and other ores and is mined at Jaduguda and other sites in Singhbhum, Jharkhand, and at Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh. Thorium comes mainly from monazite in the beach sands of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, where India has among the largest reserves in the world. India's three-stage nuclear programme aims to use this thorium in the long run.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · Geography · Mineral and Energy Resources
At a Glance
- Uranium ore Pitchblende (uraninite)
- First Indian mine Jaduguda, Singhbhum
- Thorium source Monazite beach sands
- Programme Three-stage, designed by Homi Bhabha
- Law SHANTI Act, 2025
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Geography: Mineral and Energy Resources
Where Does It Fit?
This is the last topic of the macro on mineral and energy resources, and of the whole subject. The previous topic covered asbestos, kyanite and gypsum, and this one closes with the nuclear minerals that complete the energy story. Previous topic: Asbestos, Kyanite and Gypsum. This is the final topic of Geography.
Where Are Uranium and Thorium Found?
| Mineral | World | India |
|---|---|---|
| Uranium | Kazakhstan is the largest producer, followed by Canada, Namibia, Australia and Uzbekistan; Australia has the largest reserves; Canada’s Athabasca basin has the richest ores | Jharkhand (Singhbhum: Jaduguda, the first mine from 1967, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih, Banduhurang); Andhra Pradesh (Tummalapalle in Kadapa, a large low-grade deposit); Telangana (Lambapur-Peddagattu); Meghalaya (Domiasiat); Rajasthan (Rohil in Sikar); Karnataka (Gogi); mining and milling by the Uranium Corporation of India Limited |
| Thorium | Found in monazite and thorite; Brazil, India, Australia, the United States and Egypt have large resources | Monazite in beach sands of Kerala (Chavara and Neendakara), Tamil Nadu (Manavalakurichi), Odisha (Chhatrapur) and Andhra Pradesh, and in river sands of Jharkhand; India has about a quarter of the world’s thorium resources according to official estimates |
India’s uranium is low in grade, only a fraction of a per cent in most deposits, so its domestic supply does not meet the requirements of a large nuclear fleet, and it imports uranium from Kazakhstan, Canada, Russia and others under safeguards, since the civil nuclear agreement with the United States of 2008 and the waiver of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. Thorium is abundant, but it is not itself fissile and must be converted to uranium-233 in a reactor, so it is not yet used for power on a large scale.
What Is India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Programme?
| Stage | Reactor and fuel | Status |
|---|---|---|
| Stage 1 | Pressurised heavy water reactors using natural uranium, producing electricity and plutonium | Operating at Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kakrapar, Kaiga, Narora and Kudankulam (Russian light water units) |
| Stage 2 | Fast breeder reactors using plutonium from stage one, to produce more fuel than they use and to convert thorium to uranium-233 | The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, has reached an advanced stage of commissioning |
| Stage 3 | Reactors using thorium and uranium-233, to use India’s thorium | At the research and design stage, with the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor |
The programme was designed by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s because India has little uranium but a lot of thorium. Nuclear power provides about 3 per cent of India’s electricity, with capacity of between 8 and 9 gigawatts, and the government has set a target of 100 gigawatts by 2047.
What Is the Policy Change and What Are the Issues?
- Law: the SHANTI Act, passed in December 2025, replaced the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act of 2010, and opened nuclear power generation to private companies, while mining of uranium and thorium, enrichment and reprocessing remain with the state. Details of its liability provisions have been debated.
- Safety and waste: concerns include reactor safety, the disposal of radioactive waste, and the health of mine workers and nearby people, as at Jaduguda.
- Land and local opposition: projects such as Kudankulam and Jaitapur and the uranium mine in Meghalaya faced local resistance over safety and livelihood.
- Fuel and cost: low-grade domestic uranium, dependence on imports, and the high capital cost and long time of construction.
- Climate: nuclear power is a low-carbon source of continuous power which can complement solar and wind, as discussed under Coal – Formation, Classification and Distribution.
As an analytical point, India’s nuclear strategy rests on a geological fact: a large thorium resource and a small uranium one. The three-stage programme is a long-term bet that has been slow, so near-term expansion depends on imported reactors and fuel and on private and state investment under the new law, while the thorium future stays an option and not a certainty, as in Mining and Quarrying.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Facts Sites and stages asked
- Current affairs Nuclear law and targets
- Security Energy mix
What Came Next?
This is the last topic of the subject. For revision, return to the earlier topics of this macro, starting with Iron Ore – Types and Distribution.
Key People and Terms
- Pitchblende Uranium ore
- Monazite Thorium-bearing sand
- Fissile Able to sustain chain reaction
- Fast breeder reactor Reactor producing more fuel
- UCIL Uranium Corporation of India Limited
- Uranium-233 Fuel made from thorium
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Jaduguda was the first uranium mine, 1967.
- Thorium comes from monazite sands.
- Three stages: PHWR, FBR, thorium.
- Kalpakkam has the prototype fast breeder.
- Target: 100 GW nuclear by 2047.
Do Not Confuse With
- Uranium and thorium Fissile-bearing ore versus fertile material
- Fissile and fertile Splits directly versus converts to fissile fuel
- Jaduguda and Tummalapalle Jharkhand versus Andhra Pradesh
Memory Hook
Little uranium, plenty of thorium: heavy water first, breeder next, thorium last; Jaduguda to Kalpakkam.
Mains Angle
Questions ask about India’s nuclear resources and strategy. These points add depth.
- Base Low uranium, high thorium
- Plan Three stages
- Law Private entry, safeguards
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Explain India’s three-stage nuclear programme in the context of its uranium and thorium resources and assess the challenges.”
How to Answer
- Resources Uranium, thorium sites.
- Stages Three-stage logic.
- Law New policy.
- Issues Safety, fuel, cost.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
Where is uranium mined in India?
Uranium is mined in India mainly in the Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, at Jaduguda, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih and Banduhurang, and at Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh. Other deposits are in Telangana, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Karnataka. The Uranium Corporation of India Limited operates the mines.
Where is thorium found in India?
Thorium in India is found mainly in monazite, a mineral in the beach sands of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. India has about a quarter of the world's thorium resources, among the largest of any country, but they are not yet used on a large scale.
What is India's three-stage nuclear programme?
Designed by Homi Bhabha, the programme has three stages. Stage one uses natural uranium in heavy water reactors. Stage two uses plutonium in fast breeder reactors, which can also convert thorium. Stage three uses thorium and uranium-233 in advanced reactors to exploit India's large thorium reserves.
What is the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor?
The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu is a 500 megawatt reactor that is the second stage of India's nuclear programme. It uses plutonium and uranium fuel and is designed to breed more fuel than it consumes, and later to convert thorium to uranium-233.
What is the SHANTI Act of 2025?
The SHANTI Act, passed in December 2025, replaced the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 and the nuclear liability law of 2010. It allows private companies to take part in nuclear power generation, while mining of nuclear minerals, enrichment and reprocessing stay with the state, under a target of 100 gigawatts of nuclear power by 2047.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Jaduguda in Jharkhand is a uranium mining area.
It began in 1967.
2 Monazite sands are a source of thorium.
Found on Kerala and Odisha coasts.
3 The first stage of India's nuclear programme uses thorium as fuel.
It uses natural uranium.
4 India has larger uranium reserves than thorium reserves.
Thorium is far more abundant.
Browse the full Geography index