Types of Agriculture
Geography › Economic Activities and Industrial Location · Topic 20.2
Agriculture is the cultivation of crops and rearing of animals, and its types differ with climate, relief, soil, technology and market. Subsistence agriculture, which includes shifting cultivation and intensive farming, feeds the farmer's family. Commercial agriculture, which includes plantations, extensive grain farming, mixed farming, dairy, Mediterranean agriculture and market gardening, produces for sale. India has a mix, with small farms and a majority of its workforce.
6 min read · UPSC Prelims · Geography · Economic Activities and Industrial Location
At a Glance
- Subsistence Shifting and intensive farming
- Commercial Plantation, grain, mixed, dairy, Mediterranean, horticulture
- Shifting cultivation Jhum in India, milpa, ladang
- Plantation crops Tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, sugarcane
- Indian seasons Kharif, rabi, zaid
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Geography: Economic Activities and Industrial Location
Where Does It Fit?
This is the second topic of the macro on economic activities and industrial location. The previous topic covered gathering and pastoral activities, and this one covers the many systems of farming. The next topic covers mining and quarrying. Previous topic: Primary Activities – Gathering, Pastoralism and Livestock Rearing. Next topic: Mining and Quarrying.
What Are the Types of Subsistence Agriculture?
| Type | Features | Regions |
|---|---|---|
| Primitive subsistence (shifting cultivation) | Vegetation is cleared by fire, and the ash adds fertility; plots are cultivated for a few years and then abandoned for a fallow; also called slash and burn; low yield, simple tools | Jhum in the north-east of India; milpa in Central America and Mexico; ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia; roça in Brazil; tropical forests |
| Intensive subsistence: wet paddy | Very small holdings because of dense population, family labour, little machinery, manure; high yield per hectare but low output per worker | Monsoon Asia: eastern India, Bangladesh, China, Japan, Southeast Asia |
| Intensive subsistence: other crops | Where paddy is not suited, wheat, soyabean, barley, sorghum and millets are grown, often with irrigation | Northern China, North Korea, northern Japan; the wheat plains of India and the millet areas of the west and south |
Shifting cultivation is a response to poor soils and low population, as in Major Soil Groups of India, but as the population grows, the fallow period shortens and the soil and forest are degraded, so governments try to replace it with settled farming and agroforestry.
What Are the Types of Commercial Agriculture?
| Type | Features | Regions |
|---|---|---|
| Plantation agriculture | Large estates, heavy capital, scientific methods, single-crop specialisation, cheap labour, and good transport to the factory and the market; introduced by Europeans in the tropics | Tea in India and Sri Lanka, rubber in Malaysia, cocoa and coffee in West Africa, sugarcane and bananas in the West Indies, coffee fazendas in Brazil, coconut in the Philippines |
| Extensive commercial grain farming | Very large mechanised farms in semi-arid mid-latitude interiors; wheat is the main crop; low yield per hectare but high yield per person | Eurasian steppes, North American prairies, Argentine pampas, South African veld, Australian downs, Canterbury plains |
| Mixed farming | Moderate-sized farms combining crops and livestock; crop rotation, fodder, heavy investment in machinery and fertiliser | North-western Europe, eastern North America, temperate southern continents |
| Dairy farming | Specialised rearing of milch animals near cities, as in Primary Activities – Gathering, Pastoralism and Livestock Rearing | North-western Europe, Canada, south-eastern Australia and New Zealand |
| Mediterranean agriculture | Specialised commercial farming of citrus fruits, grapes for wine, olives and figs; winter vegetables and fruits for European and American markets | Countries around the Mediterranean Sea, California, central Chile, south-western South Africa, southern Australia, as in Dry and Warm Temperate Climates (Groups B and C) |
| Market gardening and horticulture | High-value vegetables, fruits and flowers for urban markets; small intensive farms with irrigation, greenhouses and high inputs; truck farming for vegetables near cities | Densely populated industrial areas of north-west Europe, north-eastern United States, and the Mediterranean; Netherlands for flowers |
| Co-operative and collective farming | Farmers pool resources voluntarily in cooperatives, as in Denmark and the Netherlands; or the state runs collective farms, as in the former Soviet Union and China before reforms | Denmark, Netherlands, Israel’s kibbutz and moshav, India’s dairy cooperatives |
What Is the Pattern in India?
- Seasons: kharif crops, such as rice, maize, cotton, jowar and bajra, are sown with the onset of the monsoon in June and harvested in September to October; rabi crops, such as wheat, barley, gram, mustard and peas, are sown in October to December and harvested in March to April; zaid crops, such as watermelon, cucumber and fodder, are grown in the summer between the two. The cropping seasons follow the climate, as in Seasons of India.
- Types in use: intensive subsistence farming on small holdings in the plains and deltas; jhum in the north-east, officially being phased out; plantations of tea, coffee, rubber and spices in the hills, as in Natural Vegetation of India; commercial farming of wheat and rice in Punjab and Haryana; horticulture and dairy near cities; and increasingly organic and natural farming.
- Structure: the average holding is small, around 1.1 hectares, and agriculture employs close to half of the workforce but contributes about 15 to 18 per cent of the gross value added, so productivity per worker is low, as in Population Composition – Sex, Age and Occupation. Foodgrain output has reached a record of about 350 million tonnes.
- Support: minimum support prices, PM-KISAN income support, crop insurance and the National Mission on Natural Farming launched in 2024.
As an analytical point, the classification shows that farming systems are a result of population density and capital: where land is short and labour is plentiful, as in monsoon Asia, farming is intensive and subsistence-oriented, and where land is plentiful and labour is scarce, as in the prairies, it is extensive and mechanised. India’s challenge is to raise the income of the small farmer through diversification into horticulture, dairy and fisheries, through better water use and through market links, and not only through higher yields of cereals.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Facts Types and regions asked
- India Seasons and structure
- Policy Small farm incomes
What Came Next?
The next topic describes mining and quarrying. Next topic: Mining and Quarrying.
Key People and Terms
- Jhum Shifting cultivation of north-east India
- Plantation Large commercial estate of one crop
- Truck farming Vegetable farming for urban markets
- Viticulture Grape cultivation
- Kharif Monsoon-sown crops
- Rabi Winter-sown crops
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Jhum is shifting cultivation in the north-east.
- Wet paddy farming has high yield per hectare, low per worker.
- Grain farms: high yield per person, low per hectare.
- Plantations need large capital and one crop.
- Kharif June to October; rabi October to April.
Do Not Confuse With
- Intensive and extensive farming Small land with high inputs versus large land with low yield per hectare
- Plantation and mixed farming Single cash crop versus crops plus livestock
- Kharif and rabi Monsoon versus winter crops
Memory Hook
Burn and move, paddy by hand, tea on estates, wheat by machine; mix it, milk it, market it.
Mains Angle
Questions compare farming types and ask about Indian agriculture. These points add depth.
- Contrast Intensive versus extensive
- Shift Subsistence to commercial
- India Small farms, low productivity
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Distinguish between subsistence and commercial agriculture with examples, and discuss the changing pattern of agriculture in India.”
How to Answer
- Subsistence Shifting and intensive.
- Commercial Plantation to horticulture.
- India Seasons and holdings.
- Change Diversification.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What is shifting cultivation?
Shifting cultivation is a primitive form of subsistence agriculture in which the vegetation is cleared by burning, crops are grown on the cleared plot for a few years, and then the plot is abandoned for a fallow period. It is known as jhum in north-east India, milpa in Central America and ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.
What is the difference between intensive and extensive agriculture?
Intensive agriculture is farming with small land holdings and high inputs of labour, fertiliser and often irrigation, giving a high yield per hectare, as in monsoon Asia. Extensive agriculture uses very large farms with machines and low inputs per hectare, giving high output per worker, as on the prairies.
What is plantation agriculture?
Plantation agriculture is large-scale commercial farming of a single crop, such as tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa or sugarcane, in the tropics. It was introduced by Europeans and needs large estates, capital, technical management, cheap labour and transport links to the factories and markets.
What is Mediterranean agriculture?
Mediterranean agriculture is a specialised commercial farming system of regions with a Mediterranean climate, producing citrus fruits, grapes for wine, olives and figs. Its advantage is that valuable fruits and vegetables ripen in winter, when they are in demand in European and North American markets.
What are the cropping seasons of India?
India has three cropping seasons: kharif, with crops such as rice, maize, cotton and millets that are sown with the monsoon in June and harvested in autumn; rabi, with crops such as wheat, barley, gram and mustard sown in winter and harvested in spring; and zaid, the short summer season between them.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Jhuming is a form of shifting cultivation practised in north-east India.
It is slash-and-burn farming.
2 Extensive commercial grain farming has a high yield per hectare.
It has high yield per person, low per hectare.
3 Wheat is a kharif crop in India.
It is a rabi crop.
4 Plantations are usually specialised in a single crop.
Tea and rubber are examples.
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