Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Iron Ore, Manganese, Chromium, Nickel, Tungsten
Geography › Mineral and Energy Resources · Topic 12.3
Ferrous minerals are the iron-bearing and iron-alloying metals on which steel depends. Iron ore, in the forms of magnetite and haematite, is the base; manganese and chromite make steel stronger and rust-resistant; nickel, tungsten, molybdenum and cobalt are alloy metals for tools, aircraft and batteries. India has large iron ore in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Karnataka, manganese in Odisha and Madhya Pradesh, and chromite mainly in the Sukinda valley of Odisha, but depends on imports of nickel, cobalt and tungsten.
12 min read · UPSC Prelims · Geography · Mineral and Energy Resources
At a Glance
- Iron ore Magnetite up to about 72 per cent iron
- Manganese Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
- Chromite Sukinda valley, Odisha
- Alloy metals Nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt
- Imports Nickel, cobalt and tungsten
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Geography: Mineral and Energy Resources
Where Does It Fit?
This topic takes the iron and steel group of metals, and it builds on the classification and regions of minerals described earlier. It leads to the non-ferrous metals, and it links to the iron and steel industry studied in the next macro. Previous topic: fold mountains, basins India’s heartland Chota Nagpur plateau Methods Open-cast and underground Law MMDR Act, 1957 Local…">Distribution and Mining Regions of Minerals in India and the World. Next topic: Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Copper, Bauxite, Aluminium, Zinc, Lead, Tin.
What Are Ferrous Minerals?
In short: ferrous minerals are the metals that are made into steel or alloyed with iron, and they are the base of modern industry. The group is the largest by value among metallic minerals, and it is described here in two parts: the iron ores, then the alloy metals.
- Iron ore: the raw material of iron and steel, from which almost all the iron used is made.
- Manganese and chromite: manganese removes impurities and hardens steel, and chromium makes stainless steel.
- Nickel, tungsten, molybdenum and cobalt: they give steel strength at high temperature, hardness and resistance to corrosion, for tools, aircraft engines and batteries.
- Link: the classification of all minerals is in gypsum, salt Energy Coal, petroleum, uranium Law MMDR Act, 1957 Key idea…">Types of Mineral Resources: Metallic and Non-Metallic, and the steel industry that uses them is in coking coal, limestone, water Process Blast furnace to pig iron to steel Largest producer China,…">Iron and Steel Industry: Production Process, Location, Distribution, Global Production, International Trade.
What Are the Types of Iron Ore?
| Ore | Formula and iron content | Features |
|---|---|---|
| Magnetite | Fe3O4; up to about 72 per cent | Black, strongly magnetic; the best quality, but found in low concentrations, so it needs beneficiation; low-grade magnetite of 25 to 30 per cent is taconite; naturally magnetised magnetite is lodestone |
| Haematite | Fe2O3; 60 to 70 per cent | Reddish; can be used in steel production without beneficiation; the most abundant ore in India |
| Limonite | 40 to 60 per cent | Yellowish, inferior, hydrated; open-cast mining is easy and cheap |
| Siderite | FeCO3; below 40 per cent | Iron carbonate with impurities; free of sulphur and phosphorus and self-fluxing because of lime; often uneconomic |
Iron ore is smelted with coking coal and limestone to make iron and steel, as in Iron and Steel Industry: Production Process, Location, Distribution, Global Production, International Trade. Ores with lower iron content must be crushed and concentrated by beneficiation and then made into pellets or sinter.
Where Is Iron Ore Found in the World?
- Producers: Australia is the largest producer, with the Pilbara region, followed by Brazil with Carajas and Minas Gerais (Itabira), China and India; most Australian and Brazilian ore is exported to China.
- Reserves: Australia, Brazil, Russia, China and India hold the largest reserves.
- Other regions: the Mesabi range of the Great Lakes and Labrador in North America; Krivoy Rog in Ukraine, the Ural region and Magnitogorsk in Russia and Kazakhstan; Kiruna in Sweden; Lorraine in France; Transvaal in South Africa and Liberia.
The trade in iron ore is one of the largest in bulk shipping, with Australia and Brazil sending ore to China, Japan and South Korea, as in Major Sea Ports of India (Major and Non-Major Ports).
Where Is Iron Ore Found in India?
| State | Details |
|---|---|
| Odisha | The largest producer, with about half of India’s output and about a third of haematite reserves; the Barbil–Koira valley in Keonjhar and Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Joda and Noamundi belt |
| Jharkhand | About a quarter of haematite reserves; Singhbhum, with the first mine at Gua in 1904 and the rich Noamundi mines; supplies Tata Steel at Jamshedpur |
| Chhattisgarh | Bastar district, with the Bailadila range, whose Kirandul mines are among the largest mechanised mines in Asia; ore goes by a slurry pipeline to Visakhapatnam, whose high-grade ore is exported to Japan; Dalli-Rajhara supplies Bhilai |
| Karnataka | The Bellary–Hospet–Sandur belt for haematite, and magnetite in the Bababudan hills, Kemmangundi and Kudremukh, with about 73 per cent of the magnetite; Kudremukh is in the ecologically fragile Western Ghats |
| Goa | Haematite and limonite; mining was banned by the Supreme Court in 2012 over illegalities and resumed after new leases in later years; exports from Mormugao |
| Others | Andhra Pradesh (Rayalaseema), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Chandrapur), Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu (Salem) |
India’s resources of haematite are about 22 billion tonnes and of magnetite about 10 billion tonnes, but most of the high-grade reserve has been used for decades, so there is growing use of low-grade ore through beneficiation and pellet plants. Production was about 289 million tonnes in 2024–25, after a fall during the court bans on illegal mining in Karnataka, Goa and Odisha in 2010 to 2014, and early estimates for 2025–26 are about 305 to 310 million tonnes. NMDC, a public sector company, is the largest producer, and several private firms produce large amounts, mostly in Odisha. India is both an exporter of high-grade ore and a rising importer of ore for its blast furnaces, as in Iron and Steel Industry: Production Process, Location, Distribution, Global Production, International Trade. As an analytical point, the steel target of 300 million tonnes by 2030 requires about 500 million tonnes of ore, so the long-run needs of ore are high, and mining must be planned with the interests of the forest-dwelling communities of Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, as in Distribution and Mining Regions of Minerals in India and the World.
What Are Manganese and Chromite Used For?
| Mineral | Ores and features | Uses |
|---|---|---|
| Manganese | Pyrolusite (manganese dioxide, up to about 63 per cent manganese) and psilomelane; found in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, often with iron ore | About nine-tenths of manganese is used in steelmaking, where it removes sulphur and oxygen and hardens the steel (about 6 to 7 kg per tonne of steel); also in dry-cell batteries, glass, paints and fertilisers; it has no good substitute in steel |
| Chromite | Chromium and iron oxide; found in ultramafic igneous rocks such as peridotite and serpentinite | Stainless steel (which contains at least 10.5 per cent chromium), chrome plating, bricks for furnaces, tanning and pigments |
Both minerals are processed into ferro-alloys, ferro-manganese, silico-manganese and ferro-chrome, which are added to steel, as in Iron and Steel Industry: Production Process, Location, Distribution, Global Production, International Trade. Ferro-alloy plants use a great deal of electricity, so they are set up near cheap power as well as the ore. In India the main ferro-alloy plants are in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal. The metals also have uses beyond steel: manganese dioxide is a depolariser in the common dry cell, and some lithium-ion battery chemistries use manganese, while chromium compounds are used for tanning leather and for pigments.
Where Are Manganese and Chromite Found?
| Mineral | World | India |
|---|---|---|
| Manganese | South Africa, with the Kalahari field, has the largest reserves and output; Australia, Gabon, China, Brazil and Ghana are also major producers | Odisha (Keonjhar, Sundargarh, Koraput) leads, followed by Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindwara) and Maharashtra (Nagpur and Bhandara), the Nagpur–Balaghat belt; also Karnataka (Shimoga, Chitradurga), Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan (Banswara), Jharkhand and Goa |
| Chromite | South Africa’s Bushveld complex, Kazakhstan and India are the largest producers; Turkey and Zimbabwe also have deposits | Odisha has nearly all of the output and reserves, in the Sukinda valley of Jajpur district and in Keonjhar and Dhenkanal; smaller deposits in Karnataka (Mysuru, Hassan), Manipur (Ukhrul), Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu (Salem) |
India is among the top few producers of manganese ore, with output of around three million tonnes a year, but it also imports ore from South Africa and Gabon. MOIL Limited, a public sector firm based in Nagpur, is the largest producer of manganese, from mines in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. India is also among the leading producers of chromite and exports chrome ore and ferro-chrome, though Odisha’s best reserves are being used up and exports of lumpy ore have been restricted from time to time, as in Distribution and Mining Regions of Minerals in India and the World.
What Are the Issues with Manganese and Chromite?
- Pollution at Sukinda: chromite mining in the Sukinda valley of Odisha has released hexavalent chromium, a toxic and cancer-causing form of the metal, from mine waste into the water of the Damsala and Brahmani rivers, and the area was ranked among the most polluted places in the world in a 2007 international assessment. Treatment, waste dumps and water supplies have been priorities for the state.
- Quality: much Indian manganese ore is of low or medium grade and needs beneficiation.
- Strategic need: manganese and chromium are critical to steel and stainless steel, so security of supply and the development of recycling matter as India plans a large increase in steel production.
- Ferro-alloy industry: the use of power and the emissions of ferro-alloy smelters are issues, and the industry is seeking cheaper electricity.
As an analytical point, India is well endowed with chromite and moderately with manganese, but both come from the same eastern belt where iron ore and coal lie, so the development of steel, ferro-alloys and stainless steel in Odisha forms one cluster. The challenge is to add value in the state with clean processing rather than export raw ore, and to protect the people and rivers near the mines, as in Iron and Steel Industry: Production Process, Location, Distribution, Global Production, International Trade.
What Are Tungsten, Nickel, Molybdenum and Cobalt Used For?
| Metal | Ores | Properties and uses |
|---|---|---|
| Tungsten | Wolframite and scheelite | The highest melting point of all metals, about 3,400 degrees Celsius; used for lamp filaments, cutting tools, drill bits, armour-piercing ammunition, and heat-resistant steel |
| Nickel | Nickel laterites (about two-thirds of resources) and sulphide ores | Stainless steel (about two-thirds of use), alloys, electroplating, coins, and nickel-rich cathodes of electric vehicle batteries |
| Molybdenum | Molybdenite, mostly a by-product of copper mining | Strengthens steel at high temperatures and under corrosion; used in pipelines, tools, aircraft and catalysts for removing sulphur from fuel |
| Cobalt | By-product of copper and nickel ores, with some in laterite | Lithium-ion battery cathodes, superalloys for jet engines, magnets and pigments |
All four are called strategic or critical minerals because modern industry, defence, electronics and energy transition technologies depend on them, while supply comes from a few countries, as in Types of Mineral Resources: Metallic and Non-Metallic. Tungsten carbide, for example, is used in the tips of mining drills and machine tools, and nickel-based superalloys sit in the hot section of jet engines. Molybdenum-bearing steels are used in oil and gas pipelines. Because the metals are rarely mined for their own sake, their output depends on the copper and nickel industries, and a fall in those industries can reduce supply.
Where Are Tungsten, Nickel, Molybdenum and Cobalt Found?
- Tungsten: China holds the largest reserves and supplies about four-fifths of the world’s output, with Vietnam, Russia and Bolivia next. India has small deposits, such as the Degana wolframite mine in Nagaur, Rajasthan, which is no longer worked, and scheelite occurrences in Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
- Nickel: Indonesia is by far the largest producer, from laterite ores, followed by the Philippines, Russia, New Caledonia, Canada and Australia. India’s resource is mostly in the chromite overburden of the Sukinda valley in Odisha, with smaller occurrences in Jharkhand (Jaduguda and Singhbhum), Karnataka, Nagaland and Keralam (Kerala), and the country has no large mine, so it imports nickel.
- Molybdenum: Chile, China, the United States and Peru are the leading producers, mostly as a by-product of copper, and India has only minor occurrences in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan, so there is no real production.
- Cobalt: the Democratic Republic of the Congo produces about three-quarters of the world’s cobalt in the Copperbelt, with Indonesia growing as a by-product of nickel processing; most is refined in China. India has no significant domestic production and imports cobalt compounds.
The concentration in a few countries makes these metals prone to supply shocks, and export curbs, as when Indonesia banned the export of raw nickel ore to build local processing, or China’s controls on some critical minerals.
How Does India Respond to the Shortage of These Metals?
- Critical minerals list: India’s list of critical minerals, finalised in 2023, includes cobalt, nickel, molybdenum and tungsten, among thirty minerals, and the law was amended to allow auctions of critical mineral blocks and to let the private sector explore.
- National Critical Mineral Mission: launched in 2025 to promote exploration, processing and recycling, and to build overseas supply. Reports differ on its outlay, so the official figure should be checked.
- Overseas assets: Khanij Bidesh India Limited, KABIL, a joint venture of public sector firms, seeks mineral assets abroad, and India has signed partnerships with Australia, Argentina, Chile and others.
- Recycling: the recovery of nickel and cobalt from used batteries and scrap is encouraged.
As an analytical point, India’s weakness is not only geological but also industrial: it has no refining capacity for most of these metals, so even if raw ore is found, it must be processed. The country’s choices for battery metals therefore include long-term supply agreements, investments in refining at home, and a move towards battery chemistries that use less cobalt and nickel, as in Distribution and Mining Regions of Minerals in India and the World.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Facts Types and states asked
- Map-based Mines and ports
- Link Steel targets
What Came Next?
The next topic describes the non-ferrous metallic minerals: copper, bauxite, aluminium, zinc, lead and tin. Next topic: Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Copper, Bauxite, Aluminium, Zinc, Lead, Tin.
Key People and Terms
- Magnetite Richest, magnetic iron ore
- Haematite Main iron ore of India
- Beneficiation Improving ore quality
- Taconite Low-grade magnetite
- Pellet Hardened ore balls for furnaces
- NMDC National Mineral Development Corporation
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Magnetite: 72 per cent; haematite: 60 to 70.
- Odisha leads in production.
- Bailadila ore goes by pipeline to Visakhapatnam.
- Karnataka has most magnetite.
- Goa mining: Supreme Court ban in 2012.
Do Not Confuse With
- Magnetite and haematite Black and rich versus red and abundant
- Limonite and siderite Yellow hydrated versus carbonate
- Reserves and resources Economically minable versus total
Memory Hook
Iron is the body, manganese the muscle, chromite the shine, and nickel, tungsten and cobalt the special edge.
Mains Angle
Questions ask for distribution and sustainability. These points add depth.
- Quality Ore types
- Location Eastern belt
- Future Low grades and demand
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Describe the distribution of iron ore, manganese and chromite in India, and explain why alloy metals such as nickel, cobalt and tungsten are important and imported.”
How to Answer
- Iron ore Types and states.
- Manganese, chromite Uses and belts.
- Alloy metals Nickel, tungsten, cobalt.
- Issues Imports and critical minerals.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the types of iron ore?
The main types of iron ore are magnetite, with up to 72 per cent iron, haematite with 60 to 70 per cent iron, limonite with 40 to 60 per cent and siderite with less than 40 per cent. Magnetite and haematite are the good ores, and haematite is the most important in India.
Which Indian state produces the most iron ore?
Odisha is the largest producer of iron ore in India, contributing about half of the national output, mainly from the Keonjhar, Sundargarh and Mayurbhanj districts. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa are the other major producers.
Which countries are the largest producers of iron ore?
Australia is the largest producer of iron ore, followed by Brazil, China and India. Most of the ore from Australia and Brazil is exported to China, which has a very high demand for steel but lower-grade domestic ore.
What is manganese used for?
About nine-tenths of manganese is used in steelmaking, where it removes impurities such as sulphur and oxygen and makes the steel harder and tougher. It is also used in dry-cell batteries, glass, paints and fertilisers. No substitute for manganese in steel has been found.
What is chromite used for?
Chromite is the only ore of chromium. It is used mainly to make ferro-chrome for stainless steel, which needs at least 10.5 per cent chromium for rust resistance. It is also used for chrome plating, refractory bricks in furnaces, leather tanning and pigments.
Where is chromite found in India?
Nearly all of India's chromite comes from Odisha, particularly the Sukinda valley in Jajpur district, and also Keonjhar and Dhenkanal. Smaller deposits occur in Karnataka, Manipur, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. India is among the world's largest producers of chromite.
Why is cobalt important?
Cobalt is used in the cathodes of lithium-ion batteries for phones and electric vehicles, in superalloys for jet engines and in magnets. The Democratic Republic of the Congo produces most of the world's cobalt as a by-product of copper mining, and India has no significant production, so it relies on imports.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Magnetite has the highest iron content among iron ores.
It has up to 72 per cent.
2 Bailadila iron ore deposits are in Karnataka.
They are in Chhattisgarh.
3 Chromite is the main ore of chromium.
Used in stainless steel.
4 Odisha produces nearly all of India's chromite.
Mainly from the Sukinda valley.
5 Tungsten has the highest melting point among metals.
About 3,400 degrees Celsius.
Past Mains Questions on This Topic
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