Maarg Manthan · Topic 12.11

Atomic (Nuclear) Energy: Source Minerals (Uranium, Thorium), Production, Distribution, Future Potential

Geography › Mineral and Energy Resources · Topic 12.11

Atomic energy is power from the splitting (fission) of heavy nuclei, mainly uranium-235 and plutonium-239, with thorium-232 as a future fuel. Uranium is mined at Jaduguda in Jharkhand and in Andhra Pradesh and Meghalaya, and thorium comes from monazite beach sands of Keralam, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. Kazakhstan, Canada and Namibia lead in uranium mining, and the United States, China and France in nuclear power. India's three-stage programme aims at thorium, and the SHANTI Act of 2025 opened generation to private firms.

8 min read · UPSC Prelims · Geography · Mineral and Energy Resources

At a Glance

Fuels Uranium and thorium
Indian uranium Jaduguda, Singhbhum
Thorium Monazite beach sands
Programme Three-stage, by Homi Bhabha
Target 100 GW by 2047
Exam link UPSC Prelims, Geography: Mineral and Energy Resources

Where Does It Fit?

This topic follows hydro-electricity and takes the energy from atoms. It links to the minerals of the macro, to science and technology, and to the topic on renewable energy that follows. Previous topic: Hydro-Electricity: Ideal Conditions, Distribution, Generation. Next topic: Renewable Energy: Solar, Wind, Geothermal, Tidal, Wave, Biomass, Hydrogen as a Fuel.

How Is Nuclear Energy Produced?

In short: nuclear power plants split the nuclei of heavy atoms, usually uranium-235, in a chain reaction that releases heat, and the heat makes steam to turn a turbine.

Fission: when a neutron hits an atom of uranium-235, the nucleus splits and gives out heat and more neutrons, which split more atoms in a chain reaction. Natural uranium has only about 0.7 per cent uranium-235, so many reactors use uranium enriched to a few per cent, while Indian heavy water reactors use natural uranium.
Reactor parts: fuel rods, a moderator such as heavy water or ordinary water to slow neutrons, control rods to absorb neutrons and keep the reaction steady, a coolant to carry the heat, and thick shielding.
Fertile and fissile: uranium-238 and thorium-232 are fertile, meaning that they turn into fissile plutonium-239 and uranium-233 inside a reactor, which is the basis of breeder reactors.
Benefits and limits: it gives steady, low-carbon power with a small fuel quantity, but it creates radioactive waste, needs high investment and strict safety rules, and carries accident risk, as the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 and the Fukushima accident of 2011 showed.

Where Are Uranium and Thorium Found?

Mineral	World	India
Uranium	Kazakhstan is the largest producer, followed by Canada, Namibia, Australia and Uzbekistan; Australia has the largest reserves; Canada’s Athabasca basin has the richest ores	Jharkhand (Singhbhum: Jaduguda, the first mine from 1967, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih, Banduhurang); Andhra Pradesh (Tummalapalle in Kadapa, a large low-grade deposit); Telangana (Lambapur-Peddagattu); Meghalaya (Domiasiat); Rajasthan (Rohil in Sikar); Karnataka (Gogi); mining and milling by the Uranium Corporation of India Limited
Thorium	Found in monazite and thorite; Brazil, India, Australia, the United States and Egypt have large resources	Monazite in beach sands of Keralam (Kerala) (Chavara and Neendakara), Tamil Nadu (Manavalakurichi), Odisha (Chhatrapur) and Andhra Pradesh, and in river sands of Jharkhand; India has about a quarter of the world’s thorium resources according to official estimates

India’s uranium is low in grade, only a fraction of a per cent in most deposits, so its domestic supply does not meet the requirements of a large nuclear fleet, and it imports uranium from Kazakhstan, Canada, Russia and others under safeguards, since the civil nuclear agreement with the United States of 2008 and the waiver of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. Thorium is abundant, but it is not itself fissile and must be converted to uranium-233 in a reactor, so it is not yet used for power on a large scale.

What Is India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Programme?

Stage	Reactor and fuel	Status
Stage 1	Pressurised heavy water reactors using natural uranium, producing electricity and plutonium	Operating at Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kakrapar, Kaiga, Narora and Kudankulam (Russian light water units)
Stage 2	Fast breeder reactors using plutonium from stage one, to produce more fuel than they use and to convert thorium to uranium-233	The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, has reached an advanced stage of commissioning
Stage 3	Reactors using thorium and uranium-233, to use India’s thorium	At the research and design stage, with the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor

The programme was designed by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s because India has little uranium but a lot of thorium. Nuclear power provides about 3 per cent of India’s electricity, with capacity of between 8 and 9 gigawatts, and the government has set a target of 100 gigawatts by 2047.

Which Countries Lead in Nuclear Power?

Aspect	Pattern
Share of world electricity	A little under a tenth, from over four hundred operating reactors in about thirty countries
Largest producers	The United States has the largest nuclear output, followed by China and France
Highest dependence	France gets roughly two-thirds of its electricity from nuclear plants; Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary have high shares too
Fastest growth	China builds the most new reactors; India, Russia, South Korea and Turkey are also adding units
Reverse trend	Germany shut its last reactors in 2023; Japan restarted only some units after Fukushima
Uranium supply	Kazakhstan, Canada, Namibia, Australia and Uzbekistan mine most uranium; Niger and Russia are also important
Oversight	The International Atomic Energy Agency, based in Vienna, promotes safe use and inspects safeguards

Check the latest numbers in the annual reports of the International Atomic Energy Agency and the World Nuclear Association.

What Is the Future Potential of Nuclear Energy?

Climate role: nuclear energy is a low-carbon source of continuous power, which can complement solar and wind that vary through the day and year.
Small modular reactors: factory-built units of a smaller size, with simpler design and shorter construction, are being developed worldwide. India has announced a plan for small modular reactors and research in the Union Budget of 2025-26, under a Nuclear Energy Mission, with a goal of 100 gigawatts of nuclear capacity by 2047. Check the latest on funding and projects.
Thorium: the third stage of India’s programme aims to use its large thorium resource, but the technology is not yet proven at scale.
Hydrogen and industry: high-temperature reactors may supply heat and hydrogen for industry in the future, as in Renewable Energy: Solar, Wind, Geothermal, Tidal, Wave, Biomass, Hydrogen as a Fuel.
Fusion: the joining of light nuclei, as in the Sun, is under research at the ITER project in France, in which India is a partner, but it is not expected to supply power for decades.
Constraints: high capital cost, long build times, waste disposal, public acceptance and, in India, the supply of fuel and the question of liability.

As an analytical point, the case for nuclear power rests on firm, low-carbon electricity at a time of rising demand, and the case against it on cost, speed and risk. The renewed policy interest of India, China and many other countries suggests that it will remain part of the mix, along with solar, wind and storage.

What Is the Policy Change and What Are the Issues?

Law: the SHANTI Act, passed in December 2025, replaced the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act of 2010, and opened nuclear power generation to private companies, while mining of uranium and thorium, enrichment and reprocessing remain with the state. Details of its liability provisions have been debated.
Safety and waste: concerns include reactor safety, the disposal of radioactive waste, and the health of mine workers and nearby people, as at Jaduguda.
Land and local opposition: projects such as Kudankulam and Jaitapur and the uranium mine in Meghalaya faced local resistance over safety and livelihood.
Fuel and cost: low-grade domestic uranium, dependence on imports, and the high capital cost and long time of construction.
Climate: nuclear power is a low-carbon source of continuous power which can complement solar and wind.

As an analytical point, India’s nuclear strategy rests on a geological fact: a large thorium resource and a small uranium one. The three-stage programme is a long-term bet that has been slow, so near-term expansion depends on imported reactors and fuel and on private and state investment under the new law, while the thorium future stays an option and not a certainty.

Why Is This Topic Important?

Facts Sites and stages asked
Current affairs Nuclear law and targets
Security Energy mix

What Came Next?

The next topic describes renewable energy: solar, wind, geothermal, tidal, wave, biomass and hydrogen as a fuel. Next topic: Renewable Energy: Solar, Wind, Geothermal, Tidal, Wave, Biomass, Hydrogen as a Fuel.

Key People and Terms

Pitchblende Uranium ore
Monazite Thorium-bearing sand
Fissile Able to sustain chain reaction
Fast breeder reactor Reactor producing more fuel
UCIL Uranium Corporation of India Limited
Uranium-233 Fuel made from thorium

Exam Corner

Points to Remember

Jaduguda was the first uranium mine, 1967.
Thorium comes from monazite sands.
Three stages: PHWR, FBR, thorium.
Kalpakkam has the prototype fast breeder.
Target: 100 GW nuclear by 2047.

Do Not Confuse With

Uranium and thorium Fissile-bearing ore versus fertile material
Fissile and fertile Splits directly versus converts to fissile fuel
Jaduguda and Tummalapalle Jharkhand versus Andhra Pradesh

Memory Hook

Uranium splits, thorium waits: three stages, one dream, and a fuel that India holds in the sand.

Mains Angle

Questions ask about India’s nuclear resources and strategy. These points add depth.

Base Low uranium, high thorium
Plan Three stages
Law Private entry, safeguards

A Question You May Face

An original practice question, not a past paper question.

“Describe the distribution of nuclear fuels in India and discuss the three-stage nuclear programme and the future of nuclear energy.”

How to Answer

Fuels Uranium and thorium.
Distribution Jharkhand, coastal sands.
Programme Three stages.
Future Law, SMRs, constraints.

GS Relevance

Prelims: source minerals, mines and sands, the three-stage programme, reactors, world leaders. GS Paper 3: nuclear energy, science and technology, energy security.

Frequently Asked Questions

Where is uranium mined in India?

Uranium is mined in India mainly in the Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, at Jaduguda, Bhatin, Narwapahar, Turamdih and Banduhurang, and at Tummalapalle in Andhra Pradesh. Other deposits are in Telangana, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Karnataka. The Uranium Corporation of India Limited operates the mines.

Where is thorium found in India?

Thorium in India is found mainly in monazite, a mineral in the beach sands of Keralam, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. India has about a quarter of the world's thorium resources, among the largest of any country, but they are not yet used on a large scale.

What is India's three-stage nuclear programme?

Designed by Homi Bhabha, the programme has three stages. Stage one uses natural uranium in heavy water reactors. Stage two uses plutonium in fast breeder reactors, which can also convert thorium. Stage three uses thorium and uranium-233 in advanced reactors to exploit India's large thorium reserves.

What is the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor?

The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu is a 500 megawatt reactor that is the second stage of India's nuclear programme. It uses plutonium and uranium fuel and is designed to breed more fuel than it consumes, and later to convert thorium to uranium-233.

What is the SHANTI Act of 2025?

The SHANTI Act, passed in December 2025, replaced the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 and the nuclear liability law of 2010. It allows private companies to take part in nuclear power generation, while mining of nuclear minerals, enrichment and reprocessing stay with the state, under a target of 100 gigawatts of nuclear power by 2047.

PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis

1 Jaduguda in Jharkhand is a uranium mining area.

True

It began in 1967.

2 Monazite sands are a source of thorium.

True

Found on Keralam and Odisha coasts.

3 The first stage of India's nuclear programme uses thorium as fuel.

False

It uses natural uranium.

4 India has larger uranium reserves than thorium reserves.