Maarg Manthan · Topic 13.4

Sensitivity of Select Ecosystems to Mining

Environment & Ecology › Air, Marine, Noise and Other Pollution · Topic 13.4

Ecosystems differ in how well they tolerate mining. Forests, especially primary and tropical forests that hold rich biodiversity and tribal livelihoods, lose habitat, soil and carbon and take decades to recover. Mountains and hills, such as the Himalaya and the Western Ghats, have steep slopes, thin soils and heavy rain, so mining triggers landslides, erosion and siltation. Rivers and floodplains suffer from sand and boulder mining that lowers beds, undermines bridges, erodes banks and harms fish, gharials and turtles. Coastal areas and beaches lose natural barriers from sand and mineral sand mining. Wetlands and mangroves are damaged by changes in water flow, pollution and filling. Drylands and deserts, with fragile soils and scarce water, are slow to heal. Grasslands, small islands such as the Andaman and Nicobar group (limestone mining) and coral reefs are also highly sensitive, while the deep seabed is poorly understood and may be extremely slow to recover from nodule mining. Careful siting, no-go areas and strong reclamation are therefore essential.

5 min read · UPSC Prelims · Environment & Ecology · Air, Marine, Noise and Other Pollution

At a Glance

Most sensitive Forests, hills, rivers
Sand mining River bed damage
Hill risk Landslides
Policy idea No-go areas
New frontier Deep seabed
Exam link UPSC Prelims, Environment & Ecology: Air, Marine, Noise and Other Pollution

Where Does It Fit?

This topic follows the general impacts of mining and shows which ecosystems are hurt most. It leads to the laws that regulate mining and its sustainable practice. Previous topic: Mining and Its Environmental Impact: Direct and Indirect. Next topic: International and Indian Laws Regulating Mining Impact; Sustainable Mining.

How Do Different Ecosystems Respond to Mining?

Ecosystem	Sensitivity and examples
Tropical forests	High biodiversity, tribal livelihoods and carbon store; mining in Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh forests such as Hasdeo Arand and Saranda
Hills and mountains	Steep slopes and heavy rain lead to landslides and silting; Western Ghats iron and bauxite mining, Himalayan limestone quarries and road cuts
Rivers and floodplains	Sand and boulder mining lowers the river bed, erodes banks, weakens bridges and harms aquatic life, as in the Chambal and Ken rivers
Coasts and beaches	Beach sand and mineral mining reduce natural defences against storms, as in parts of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Odisha coasts
Wetlands and mangroves	Altered hydrology and pollution; filled for mining waste or access
Drylands	Aravalli range in Rajasthan and Haryana lost hills to quarrying, worsening desert spread and groundwater loss
Islands and reefs	Limestone and coral mining on small islands damages reefs and weakens shores

What Special Issues Arise in the Sea and Deserts?

Deep seabed: polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin are under exploration by India under a contract with the International Seabed Authority
Seabed concerns: slow-growing deep-sea animals, sediment plumes and unknown recovery times
Marine placer mining: beach sand minerals such as ilmenite and monazite
Desert and arid: fragile soil, rare water and slow recovery
Grasslands: mining on grassland habitats of birds such as the Great Indian Bustard
Protected areas: mining is barred inside national parks and sanctuaries and restricted around them
Eco-sensitive zones: restrictions on mining around protected areas
No-go idea: identifying areas where mining should not be allowed

What Else Should You Remember?

Hasdeo Arand: a large forest in Chhattisgarh with coal reserves and elephants, where mining plans are contested
Saranda: sal forest in Jharkhand famed for elephants and iron ore
Niyamgiri: Odisha hills sacred to the Dongria Kondh tribe; the Supreme Court in 2013 upheld the role of gram sabhas in the bauxite project decision
Goa iron ore: leases cancelled by the Supreme Court in 2018 after finding violations
Aravalli: Supreme Court orders have banned or restricted mining in parts of the range
Gadgil committee: Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel report of 2011 proposed ecologically sensitive zones with limits on mining
Kasturirangan committee: 2013 report proposed limiting mining in a part of the Ghats
Sand mining in rivers: has caused bridge collapses, loss of fish habitat and gharial nesting sites
Sustainable Sand Mining Guidelines: issued in 2016 and 2020 by the Environment Ministry
Beach sand: Chavara in Kerala and Manavalakurichi in Tamil Nadu have mineral sands
Limestone in islands: Andaman has limestone quarries
Meghalaya coal: rat-hole mining was banned by the National Green Tribunal in 2014
Rat-hole mining: narrow tunnels dug by hand with poor safety
Elephant corridors: often cut by mines and roads
Tribal rights: Forest Rights Act and PESA give gram sabhas a say
Biodiversity offset: compensation does not replace pristine forest
Cumulative impact: many mines in one area add up
Carrying capacity studies: are used in mining regions
ISA: International Seabed Authority, based in Kingston, Jamaica, regulates seabed mining beyond national waters
India’s seabed contract: India holds exploration rights over about 75,000 sq km for nodules since 2002
Link to previous: see Mining and Its Environmental Impact: Direct and Indirect
Link to next: see International and Indian Laws Regulating Mining Impact; Sustainable Mining
Link to Western Ghats: see Bio-Geographical Classification of India
Caution: court orders, lease status and project approvals change, so check the latest
Exam hint: match ecosystem, sensitivity and Indian example

Why Does It Matter for the Exam?

Hills: Landslides
Rivers: Sand mining
Deep sea: ISA contract
Current affairs link: Hasdeo Arand and Aravalli
Common errors: confusing ecologically sensitive zones with eco-sensitive zones of parks

As an analytical point, where an ecosystem is rare, slow to recover or vital for water and livelihoods, mining should be avoided rather than managed. Mapping no-go areas early can prevent costly conflict later.

Why Is This Topic Important?

Slow recovery Forests, deep sea
Steep Hills
Fragile Rivers, coasts

What Came Next?

The next topic covers international and Indian laws regulating mining impact and sustainable mining. Next topic: International and Indian Laws Regulating Mining Impact; Sustainable Mining.

Key People and Terms

ESZ Eco-sensitive zone
No-go area Closed to mining
Rat-hole mining Narrow hand-dug tunnels
ISA International Seabed Authority
Nodules Metal-rich seabed lumps
Offset Compensation measure

Exam Corner

Points to Remember

Hills risk landslides.
Rivers lose bed material.
Seabed: ISA contract.
Niyamgiri: 2013 gram sabha ruling.
Meghalaya rat-hole ban 2014.

Do Not Confuse With

Gadgil and Kasturirangan Wider zoning versus narrower proposal
ESZ and ecologically sensitive area Around parks versus larger landscape
Sand and mineral sand mining River bed versus beach deposits

Memory Hook

Forests, hills, rivers, coasts, each pays; the deep sea waits in silence.

Mains Angle

Questions ask for sensitive ecosystems and examples. These points help.

Why Slow recovery
Cases Ghats, Aravalli
Way No-go areas

A Question You May Face

An original practice question, not a past paper question.

“Which ecosystems are most sensitive to mining? Illustrate with Indian examples and suggest safeguards.”

How to Answer

Ecosystems List.
Why Slow healing.
Cases Ghats.
Way No-go.

GS Relevance

Prelims: sensitive areas, examples. GS Paper 3: mining and ecologically fragile areas.

Frequently Asked Questions

Which ecosystems are most sensitive to mining?

Primary forests, steep hills and mountains, rivers and floodplains, coasts and beaches, wetlands and mangroves, drylands, grasslands, small islands and coral reefs are especially sensitive. They support rich or unique biodiversity, protect against hazards or supply water, and take a very long time to recover from damage.

Why is sand mining harmful to rivers?

Removing sand and gravel beyond the natural replenishment lowers the river bed and causes bank erosion, which can undermine bridges and embankments. It destroys nesting sites of species such as gharials, muddies water, reduces groundwater recharge and changes the course of the river, so sustainable sand mining guidelines call for limits and monitoring.

What was the Niyamgiri case?

The Niyamgiri hills in Odisha, sacred to the Dongria Kondh tribe, were proposed for bauxite mining. In 2013 the Supreme Court ruled that gram sabhas must decide whether the project affects the community's religious and cultural rights under the Forest Rights Act, and the gram sabhas rejected it. The case is a landmark for tribal rights.

What is the International Seabed Authority?

The International Seabed Authority, based in Kingston, Jamaica, was set up under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea to regulate exploration and mining of mineral resources of the seabed beyond national jurisdiction. India has held an exploration contract for polymetallic nodules in the Central Indian Ocean Basin since 2002.

What are no-go areas in mining?

No-go areas are places identified as too valuable or sensitive for mining, such as dense forests with high biodiversity, wildlife corridors, protected areas and important water sources. Declaring them in advance gives clarity to industry and communities and avoids long conflicts, though India has used the idea only in limited and varied ways.

PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis

1 The Supreme Court upheld gram sabha role in the Niyamgiri case.

True

In 2013.

2 Sand mining has no effect on river banks.

False

It causes bank erosion.

3 The ISA regulates seabed mining beyond national waters.