Maarg Manthan · Topic 8.1

Pre-Vedic Religion

Art & Culture › Religion, Philosophy, Buddhism & Jainism · Topic 8.1

Pre-Vedic religion means the beliefs of Indian communities before the Vedic age, known from burials, figurines, seals and rock art. In the Harappan civilisation, about 2600 to 1900 BCE, the evidence points to mother goddess worship through terracotta figurines, a seal showing a seated horned figure called Pashupati or proto-Shiva, worship of trees and animals such as the pipal and the humped bull, fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal, ritual bathing at the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro, and careful burial with grave goods. No temple has been identified, and these readings remain interpretations.

6 min read · UPSC Prelims · Art & Culture · Religion, Philosophy, Buddhism & Jainism

At a Glance

Main evidence Figurines, seals, burials, rock art
Female deity Mother Goddess terracottas
Male figure Pashupati seal, Mohenjo-daro
Fire altars Kalibangan, Lothal
Temples None identified
Exam link UPSC Prelims, Art and Culture: Religion, Philosophy, Buddhism & Jainism

Where Does It Fit?

This is the first topic of the macro on religion and philosophy. It covers beliefs before the Vedic age and prepares the ground for the topic on Hinduism, which carries some of these ideas forward. Previous topic: jallikattu-kambala-bulbul-fighting/" class="maargx-auto-link" data-preview="At a Glance Jallikattu Tamil Nadu, bull taming, Pongal Kambala Karnataka coast, buffalo race Bulbul fighting Assam, Hajo, Magh Bihu Key case…">Animal Sports (Jallikattu, Kambala, Bulbul Fighting). Next topic: Hinduism.

What Does the Evidence Show About Early Beliefs?

Culture and period	Evidence	What it suggests
Old Stone Age and Mesolithic	Rock art at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh with hunting, dancing and animal scenes	Magic linked with the hunt and communal ritual
Neolithic	Burials at Burzahom in Kashmir with animals, such as dogs, buried with the dead; pit dwellings	Belief in life after death
Mehrgarh and Baluchistan	Burials with ornaments and food, and female figurines	Early fertility cult and funeral rites
Harappan civilisation	Terracotta female figurines, seals with horned figure, trees, animals and swastika-like signs	Mother Goddess, nature and animal worship, yogic posture
Chalcolithic cultures	Female figurines at Inamgaon and other sites in Maharashtra and Malwa, with burials under house floors	Fertility and ancestor beliefs
Megalithic cultures	Stone burials such as cists, dolmens and menhirs in the Deccan and the south	Cult of the dead, ancestor worship

What Are the Main Religious Features of the Harappan Period?

Feature	Evidence and reading
Mother Goddess	female terracotta figurines, often with a fan-shaped headdress and ornaments, are found at many sites and suggest a cult of fertility
Pashupati seal	a seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a seated figure with horns surrounded by animals. Sir John Marshall called it proto-Shiva; the reading is debated
Tree worship	seals show a pipal tree and a deity within its branches, and the pipal remains sacred today
Animal worship	the humped bull, the unicorn on many seals, the buffalo, the tiger and the snake appear in seals and figurines
Phallic worship	stone objects have been described as lingam and yoni forms, though the identification is uncertain
Fire altars	rows of fire pits are reported at Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Lothal in Gujarat, and may have been used in ritual
Great Bath	the large tank at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh is thought by many scholars to be used for ritual bathing
Burials	bodies were buried with pots, ornaments and mirrors, and the cemetery at Harappa is called Cemetery H for a later phase

What Else Should You Remember?

Alternate names: The Pashupati seal is also called the proto-Shiva seal; the Mother Goddess is also called the fertility goddess; pre-Vedic religion is also called Harappan religion or the religion of the Indus Valley civilisation; megalithic burials are also called the Iron Age cist and dolmen burials
Period in brief: Old Stone Age rock art, Neolithic burials at Burzahom, Harappan beliefs from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, Chalcolithic house burials, and megalithic burials from about 1000 BCE
No temples: no clear temple or large image of a deity has been found, which is why the nature of Harappan worship is inferred
Amulets and seals: many small amulets suggest belief in protection from spirits
Script not read: since the Harappan script has not been deciphered, religion cannot be confirmed from writing
Link with later religion: Shiva, Mother Goddess cults, pipal worship, yoga postures and water purification are traced by some scholars to this base, as in Hinduism
Contrast with Vedic religion: the Vedic age emphasised sacrifice to male gods such as Indra, Agni and Varuna, while Harappan evidence points to goddess and nature cults
Tribal and folk religion: animism, worship of village deities, sacred groves and totems continue in many tribal and rural areas
Sculpture: the seal and figurine evidence is also discussed in Sculptures of Harappan Civilisation
Cities and ritual: the planned city and the Great Bath are discussed in Harappan Period (town planning, Great Bath, granaries)
Funeral practice: Harappan burial was mostly extended burial, with cremation also known; Mehrgarh and Chalcolithic sites show house burials, while megalithic burials of the south used stone chambers
Sacred sites: Dholavira, Kalibangan and Lothal have yielded ritual and public structures that are debated
Caution: most claims on Harappan religion are interpretations of limited evidence, so exam statements often use words such as may, suggests and possibly

Why Does It Matter for the Exam?

Pashupati seal: site Mohenjo-daro, name given by Marshall
Fire altars: Kalibangan and Lothal
Mother Goddess: terracotta figurines, fertility
Comparison: Harappan nature and goddess worship versus Vedic sacrifice to male gods
Common errors: saying that temples were found at Harappan sites, or that Pashupati is confirmed as Shiva

As an analytical point, pre-Vedic religion shows that Indian faith traditions were layered from the start, with later systems taking up older goddess, tree, animal and ritual practices. This continuity is a central idea of the cultural synthesis of India.

Why Is This Topic Important?

Evidence Seals and figurines asked
Sites Fire altars and burials
Mains Continuity of tradition

What Came Next?

The next topic traces the long growth of Hinduism from the Vedas to the present. Next topic: Hinduism.

Key People and Terms

Mother Goddess Fertility deity of figurines
Proto-Shiva Name for the horned seal figure
Cist Stone box burial
Menhir Single standing stone
Animism Belief in spirits
Totem Sacred natural emblem

Study this topic together with these linked topics from other subjects.

Religious Practices of the Harappan Civilisation (Ancient History)
Rig Vedic Gods and Religion (Ancient History)

Exam Corner

Points to Remember

Pashupati seal: Mohenjo-daro, called proto-Shiva by Marshall.
Fire altars: Kalibangan and Lothal.
Female figurines suggest a Mother Goddess cult.
No temples found.
Pipal worship shown on seals.

Do Not Confuse With

Harappan and Vedic religion Goddess and nature cult versus male gods and sacrifice
Evidence and interpretation Objects found versus meanings suggested
Megalithic and Harappan burials Stone burial in the Deccan versus Harappan burial pits

Memory Hook

Goddess in clay, god on a seal, fire in the pit, water in the tank.

Mains Angle

Questions ask about continuity of religious ideas from early India. These points give a balanced frame.

Evidence Seals, figurines, burials
Limits Undeciphered script
Continuity Goddess, tree, yoga, water

A Question You May Face

An original practice question, not a past paper question.

“Discuss the evidence of religious beliefs in the Harappan civilisation and its continuity in later Indian religion.”

How to Answer

Evidence Seals, figurines, altars.
Beliefs Goddess, tree, animals.
Limits No script, no temples.
Continuity Shiva, pipal, bathing.

GS Relevance

Prelims: religious beliefs of Stone Age, Chalcolithic and Harappan cultures. GS Paper 1: Indian culture, ancient religion.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is pre-Vedic religion important for UPSC?

It is important because Prelims asks about the Pashupati seal, Mother Goddess figurines, fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal, and burial practices, while Mains asks about continuity of tradition. The topic also trains care with evidence, since many claims about Harappan worship are interpretations, not proved facts.

Who called the Pashupati seal proto-Shiva?

Sir John Marshall, the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India who led the Mohenjo-daro excavations, described the horned figure on the seal as an early form of Shiva. He noted features such as the seated yogic posture, three faces and animals around the figure, but scholars still debate the reading.

What is the Pashupati seal?

The Pashupati seal is a steatite seal from Mohenjo-daro showing a seated figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals such as an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and buffalo. Sir John Marshall called it proto-Shiva, though many scholars treat this identification as an interpretation, not a proved fact.

What do Harappan figurines tell about religion?

Many terracotta female figurines with ornaments and headdresses have been found at Harappan sites. Scholars read them as evidence of a Mother Goddess cult linked with fertility. The identification is an interpretation, since no written source or temple confirms how the figurines were used.

Were there temples in the Harappan civilisation?

No clear temple has been found at any Harappan site. Religious practice is inferred from seals, figurines, fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal, the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro and burials. This absence of temples is one reason why the nature of Harappan worship is still debated.

Which natural objects were worshipped in pre-Vedic India?

Seals and figurines point to veneration of trees, especially the pipal, and of animals such as the humped bull, buffalo and snake. Later traditions of sacred groves, pipal worship and animal vehicles of gods are often traced back to such early beliefs, which are classed under nature worship.

What do megalithic burials show?

Megalithic burials such as cists, dolmens and menhirs in the Deccan and south India show belief in life after death and ancestor worship. The dead were buried with pottery, iron tools and ornaments in stone structures. They belong to the early iron age cultures that began around 1000 BCE.

PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis

1 Fire altars have been reported at Kalibangan and Lothal.

True

They may have been used in ritual.

2 The Pashupati seal comes from Harappa.

False

It comes from Mohenjo-daro.

3 A large Harappan temple has been excavated at Mohenjo-daro.