Sequence of Social Changes in Ancient India
Ancient History › Philosophy, Cultural Interaction and Transition · Topic 9.6
Ancient Indian society passed through stages: food-gathering, Neolithic and Chalcolithic farming communities, Harappan urban society, a tribal, pastoral and egalitarian Rig Vedic order, a later Vedic agrarian society of territorial chiefdoms, the varna society of the iron age from about the fifth century BC, a third-fourth century crisis, and a landlord-dominated feudal order by the fifth-sixth centuries.
7 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Philosophy, Cultural Interaction and Transition
At a Glance
- Rig Vedic Tribal, pastoral, egalitarian
- Later Vedic Territorial chiefdoms; low surplus
- Post-Vedic Aryanization, ironization, urbanization
- Crisis Third century AD
- Outcome Landlords and feudal order
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Ancient History: Philosophy, Cultural Interaction and Transition
Where Does It Fit?
This is the sixth topic of the category on philosophy, cultural interaction and transition. The previous topic covered varna and regional identities, and this one gives the full sequence of social change. The next and last topic covers the legacy of ancient India. Previous topic: Changes in the Varna System and Rise of Regional Identities.
What Were the Early Stages?
In short: from hunters to pastoralists and early farmers, society moved through simple tribal forms before class divisions.
There are no written texts for pre-Vedic society; archaeology shows that in the Palaeolithic age people lived in small groups in hilly areas, depending on hunting and gathering. Man learnt to produce food and live in houses towards the end of the Stone Age. Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities lived on uplands near hills and rivers; peasant villages developed in the Indus basin and flowered into the urban society of Harappa, after which urbanism did not reappear for about 1500 years. From the Rig Veda onwards written texts can be used. Rig Vedic society, despite mastery of agriculture, was primarily pastoral and semi-nomadic; cattle and horses were the main possessions, a wealthy person was called gomat, the raja was gopa or gopati, and wars were fought over cattle. A daughter was duhitr, one who milks. People could produce little beyond bare subsistence. The main income of a chief came from the spoils of war and tribute, called bali, with voluntary presents from tribesmen. Periodic sacrifices were occasions for distributing gifts and tributes, with the lion’s share going to priests. The society was tribal, pastoral, semi-nomadic and egalitarian; high ranks were possible but not high social classes, and no serving order like the shudras existed. The earlier stages are in Human Evolution and the Early Man in India and The Age of the Rig Veda – Polity and Tribal Society.
| Stage | Features |
|---|---|
| Palaeolithic | Hunting-gathering in small groups |
| Neolithic and Chalcolithic | Food production; upland villages |
| Harappan | Urban society; then a break of about 1500 years |
| Rig Vedic | Pastoral, tribal, egalitarian; bali as voluntary tribute |
How Did the Varna Society Take Shape?
When the Vedic people moved to western UP they largely became agriculturists. In later Vedic times, continued settlement gave rise to territorial chiefdoms, and tributes from peasants allowed princes to perform sacrifices and reward priests. The peasant paid nobles, who donated to priests, and also paid sacrificial fees to priests. But the wooden ploughshare and indiscriminate cattle killing in sacrifices kept the surplus too small for regular taxes or professional armies. Vedic communities had no taxation system or professional army, and the tribal vis formed the army; rajas were expected to extend agriculture and even put hands to the plough, so the gap between vaishya and rajanya was not wide, and nobles could not grant land without the consent of the tribal peasantry. Post-Vedic times saw three coinciding processes: Aryanization, the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and the dominance of upper orders; ironization, the spread of iron tools, which revolutionised agriculture and crafts and increased rulers’ military power; and urbanization, the growth of towns. Iron tools and the clearing of the Gangetic forests turned the comparatively egalitarian Vedic society into a caste-divided order about the fifth century BC. Slaves and wage-earners in cultivation became regular in the Buddha’s age; Vedic literature has no word for a wage-earner. With surplus appearing, the varna system was devised to ensure collection of taxes and obedience to the king: the twice-born could study the Vedas and wear the sacred thread, while shudras and women could not. Vaishyas were principal taxpayers, and brahmanas despised manual work. Dharmashastra rules even set interest rates of 2, 3, 4 and 5 per cent for brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra, though these were prescriptive. Priests and warriors, who lived on taxes, quarrelled over shares but cooperated against vaishyas and shudras. The varna model is in Later Vedic Social Organisation – Varna, Family and Women and Varna System, Social Orders and Legislation in the Age of the Buddha.
How Did the Crisis and the Landlord Order Arise?
The varna system worked well in the Gangetic plains for centuries, with booming trade and urbanism in the first and second centuries AD. It reached its climax in about the third century and then its progressive role seems to have been exhausted, as a deep crisis described as the Kali age in the Puranas appeared: varnasankara, with vaishyas refusing taxes and shudras refusing labour. The epics emphasise danda, coercion, and Manu says vaishyas and shudras should not be allowed to deviate from their duties, with kings as restorers of the varna system. Coercion was not enough, so the state assigned land revenues to priests, military chiefs and administrators. In Vedic times only the community could give land to priests; now the raja usurped the power. Grants in tribal areas to enterprising brahmanas helped to tame inhabitants, teach better cultivation and spread the agricultural calendar, Ayurveda, writing and Prakrit and Sanskrit, and civilization spread to the deep south and far east. Aboriginal peasants brought into the brahmanical fold were ranked as shudras, so shudras came to be described as agriculturists, and the gap between vaishya and shudra narrowed. The most important result was a class of landlords living on the peasants’ produce, and by the fifth-sixth centuries a new social formation which can be called feudal. In the feudal set-up the position of women of landed and fighting classes deteriorated, sati became common in early medieval Rajasthan, while women of lower orders could work and remarry. The details are in From Ancient to Medieval – Agrarian Changes and Rise of Landlords.
| Phase | Social order |
|---|---|
| Post-Vedic to Gupta | Varna society works; iron, towns, trade |
| Third century AD | Kali crisis; varnasankara |
| Fifth-sixth centuries | Landlords between state and peasants; feudal formation |
As an analytical point, the sequence shows ancient India as a changing society, not a static one; each stage rested on a change in the way surplus was produced and taken. The philosophical side of acceptance is in Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Overview topic Ties the course together
- Terms Gomat, bali, varnasankara
- Method Economy-society link
What Came Next?
The next topic describes the legacy of ancient India in science and civilisation. Next topic: Legacy of Ancient India in Science and Civilisation.
Key People and Terms
- Gomat Wealthy in cattle
- Bali Tribute
- Aryanization Spread of Indo-Aryan culture
- Ironization Spread of iron tools
- Varnasankara Mixture of social orders
- Danda Coercion
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Rig Vedic society was pastoral and egalitarian.
- Varna society from about fifth century BC.
- Kali crisis about the third century AD.
- Interest: 2, 3, 4, 5 per cent by varna.
- Feudal formation by fifth-sixth centuries.
Do Not Confuse With
- Aryanization and ironization Culture spread versus iron-tool spread
- Gopati and gomat Chief protecting cattle versus rich in cattle
- Vis and vaishya Tribal peasantry versus later taxpaying varna
Memory Hook
Hunters, herders, farmers, iron: pastoral equals, varna ranks, Kali crisis, then landlords.
Mains Angle
Questions ask for an overview of social evolution. These points add depth.
- Early Pastoral egalitarian
- Middle Varna society
- Late Landlords
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Trace the sequence of social change in ancient India from the Rig Vedic period to the Gupta age.”
How to Answer
- Pastoral Rig Veda.
- Agrarian Later Vedic.
- Varna Iron age.
- Crisis Landlords.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What was Rig Vedic society like?
Rig Vedic society was primarily pastoral, tribal, semi-nomadic and egalitarian. Cattle and horses were the main wealth, wars were fought over cattle, and chiefs lived on war spoils and voluntary tribute called bali, so there were high ranks but no high social classes.
What were Aryanization, ironization and urbanization?
Aryanization meant the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and the dominance of upper orders, ironization meant the spread of iron tools that revolutionised agriculture and crafts, and urbanization meant the growth of towns. They occurred together in post-Vedic times.
Why was the varna system devised?
With iron tools, peasants and artisans produced surplus, and princes and priests needed a way to collect it regularly. The varna system ritually distinguished the twice-born from shudras and persuaded people to obey the king, pay taxes and make gifts to the priests.
What was the Kali crisis?
The Kali crisis was a third-fourth century social crisis in which vaishya peasants refused taxes and shudras refused labour, causing varnasankara. The state responded with coercion and then by assigning land revenues and administrative rights to priests and officials.
How did the landlord order change society?
Land grants produced landlords who lived off the peasants' produce and ran local administration, which narrowed the gap between vaishyas and shudras and led to a feudal formation by the fifth-sixth centuries, with declining status for women of landed classes.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Rig Vedic society was a class-divided agrarian order.
It was largely pastoral and egalitarian.
2 Iron tools helped turn Vedic society into a caste-divided order.
This happened about the fifth century BC.
3 The Kali age was marked by varnasankara.
Vaishyas and shudras refused their functions.
4 Vedic literature has a clear word for wage-earner.
There is no word for a wage-earner in it.
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