Master Prehistoric Rajasthan for the RPSC exam

In the history of Rajasthan, the prehistoric period denotes the era when humans were entirely unaware of the art of writing. Knowledge of this period is based mainly on the scientific analysis of stone tools, pottery and material remains. In the absence of written evidence, objects obtained from archaeological excavation are the only means of understanding life of that time. It represents the earliest stages of human development.

Archaeologists have made technological progress the main basis for classifying the prehistoric cultures of Rajasthan. This involves a close study of the changes in the size, type and distinctive manufacturing techniques of stone tools. In addition, the gradual use of metals such as copper and iron played a decisive role in the division of cultural stages. This scientific approach clarifies the sequence of development.

Virendra Nath Mishra was a distinguished Indian archaeologist who played a major role in uncovering the prehistoric history of Rajasthan. He conducted intensive research and excavation at sites such as Bagor in Bhilwara and Didwana in Nagaur. His works established the human life of the Mesolithic and Palaeolithic periods and the evidence of early animal husbandry on a global level. His contribution is regarded as extremely valuable for archaeological chronology.

The Aravalli mountain range provided prehistoric humans abundant quartzite stone for tool-making. The river valleys of south-eastern Rajasthan nurtured the agriculture of early Chalcolithic communities. The notion that the Thar desert lacked human settlement is erroneous, because clear evidence of Palaeolithic settlements has been found along the banks of the Luni river. Thus geographical diversity played a supportive role in the development of cultures.

Didwana is an important archaeological site located in Nagaur district of Rajasthan. The site is well known mainly for its Lower Palaeolithic deposits and Acheulian tool tradition. Excavation here provides authentic information about the gradual development of human civilisation spanning lakhs of years. Geologically, this region is important for the study of ancient saline lakes and sand dunes. It is a major identity of the Thar desert.

In the prehistoric period of Rajasthan, the development of tools was a gradual process. In the Lower Palaeolithic, heavy hand-axes and cleavers were prominent, while in the Middle Palaeolithic, scrapers and borers made from flakes became prevalent. The Upper Palaeolithic is identified by refined blades and burins which indicate technical improvement. Finally, in the Mesolithic, microliths came into widespread use, reflecting human skill.

Singi Talab, Amarpura and the 16R dune are sites related to the Lower Palaeolithic culture in Rajasthan where early stone tools have been found. In contrast, Kalibangan is a famous proto-historic site that represents the Indus Valley Civilisation. At Kalibangan, evidence of developed town planning and agriculture is found, which is entirely different from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of the Palaeolithic period. Hence Kalibangan falls in a category different from the other options.

The early Palaeolithic humans of Rajasthan gave preference to living near the foothills of the Aravallis and river valleys. The main reason for this was the continuous availability of water resources in these areas. In addition, hard quartzite stones were abundantly accessible in the Aravalli ranges, which were ideal for making sturdy tools for hunting. Thus geographical and geological suitability itself determined the density of early human settlements in this region.

Singi Talab is an important Lower Palaeolithic site located in the Didwana region of Nagaur. The detailed scientific study and excavation of this site was carried out by the famous archaeologist V.N. Mishra. His research proved that humans of the Acheulian culture lived here for a long time. His stratigraphic study played a foundational role in determining the earliest chronology of human civilisation in Rajasthan. This work is a milestone in Indian prehistory.

Among the geological formations of the Didwana region, the Amarpura formation is of special importance because it represents the human settlement of the Lower Palaeolithic period in Rajasthan. Heavy stone tools of Acheulian technique such as hand-axes and cleavers were obtained from the deposits of this formation. This scientifically proves that favourable climatic conditions existed here during the Middle Pleistocene period. This formation is the basis of the earliest history of the desert region.

The Jayal gravel ridge located in Nagaur district is a distinctive archaeological site. The site was important as a major source of raw material for Lower Palaeolithic early humans. The abundant stone blocks and unfinished tools obtained here indicate that it was a vast quarry site. Here early humans made tools such as hand-axes from quartzite stones. This site presents early evidence of contemporary manufacturing activities and resource management.

The Didwana region is unique in the prehistory of Rajasthan because here a continuous cultural sequence from the Lower Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic is found. Excavation of the 16R dune yielded important chronological data that helps in understanding climatic change. It is erroneous to say that Acheulian tools were absent here, because they have been found in abundance. The early humans here skilfully used local quartzite for tool-making.

The Lower Palaeolithic culture of Rajasthan is identified mainly by heavy stone tools such as hand-axes, cleavers and choppers. These tools were made by breaking stones for hunting. In contrast, geometric microliths are extremely small in size and are related to the Mesolithic period. The technology of the Lower Palaeolithic lacked fineness and the manufacturing process was simple. Hence microliths are not a feature of this early phase.

The Didwana region, which appears dry at present, was entirely different in the Lower Palaeolithic period. During the Pleistocene geological epoch the climate here was humid and perennial rivers flowed. High rainfall and abundant water sources aided the development of vegetation and wildlife, making food and water accessible for early humans. Due to this environmental suitability, human settlements developed here for a long time. This region is an excellent example of an ancient ecosystem.

In the early archaeological deposits of Singi Talab, the most important find is the tools of the Acheulian tool tradition. Among these, refined hand-axes and cleavers made of stone have prominently been found, reflecting the technical skill of that time. Metals did not exist at that time and the use of bone tools began later. These stone tools were used by early humans for hunting and cutting meat. This site is helpful in understanding the spread of the Acheulian culture.

The chronological study of geological formations in the Didwana region is essential for understanding human development. The oldest is the Jayal formation, related to the early phases of the Lower Palaeolithic. After this comes the Amarpura formation, in which Acheulian tools were found. The most recent is the Didwana formation, which contains remains up to the Mesolithic. This order, along with the deposition of stones, presents clear evidence of climatic changes and human technical progress.

In the study of the Middle Palaeolithic culture in Rajasthan, the contribution of V.N. Mishra is incomparable. On the basis of the distinctive stone tools found in the Luni river basin, he proposed the concept of the 'Luni Industry'. The main feature of this industry is small and sharp tools made from flakes such as scrapers and borers. Mishra's intensive research provided a scientific basis to the technical transition of early humans in western Rajasthan and their survival strategies. This naming is still universally accepted in archaeological literature.

The various prehistoric sites of Rajasthan developed in distinctive river valleys that provided a basis for the life there. Bagor is a famous Mesolithic site located on the bank of the Kothari river in Bhilwara. The Ganeshwar culture developed on the bank of the Kantali river of Sikar, which was famous for copper extraction. Kalibangan was a developed Harappan centre located in the valley of the ancient Saraswati (Ghaggar) river. The evidence of the Luni Industry is found in the Luni river basin of western Rajasthan.

The major feature of the Middle Palaeolithic period in Rajasthan is the use of the Levallois technique. In this method the core of the stone was prepared in a pre-planned manner and flakes of the desired shape were struck from it. This technique was more refined, reflecting the intellectual development of humans. In this period metals were not used, nor did an urban structure like Kalibangan exist. This period was mainly focused on the production of tools such as stone scrapers and borers.

The Middle Palaeolithic period is identified by flake-based tools where the outer layer of stones was removed to make tools. The Luni basin was the main centre of this period and scrapers and borers have been found here in large numbers. In this age, humans began using fine stones such as chert and jasper in place of coarse quartzite. This period is considered mainly related to the Upper Pleistocene climatic phase. This technical change was made to increase the efficiency of hunting.

The scraper of the Middle Palaeolithic period is a distinctive stone tool that was made by striking flakes. Its edges were ground sharp enough so that the skin of animals could be cleaned or wood could be scraped. It was essential for the daily needs of early humans such as garment-making or the processing of the hunt. This tool is a symbol of the fine handcraft of contemporary humans and the steps towards specialisation of tools.

The Wagan river valley holds an important place on the archaeological map of Rajasthan. Research here has revealed a continuous and rich sequence of Lower Palaeolithic Acheulian tools and later Middle Palaeolithic tools. This valley ensured the easy availability of water and raw material for ancient human settlements. The remains obtained here help in understanding the gradual development of human civilisation and technical changes. This region is a centre of research due to its geological continuity.

In western Rajasthan, a clear change was seen in the selection of raw material towards the Lower-to-Middle Palaeolithic period. Whereas in the Lower Palaeolithic coarse quartzite was used for heavy hand-axes, in the Middle Palaeolithic fine-grained stones such as chert, jasper and agate were preferred. These siliceous stones were suitable for making sharper-edged and smaller tools. This technical development reflects humans' fine tool-making capacity and better identification of resources.

During the Palaeolithic period in Rajasthan there was a continuous decrease in the size of tools, which is an indicator of technical progress. In the Lower Palaeolithic, heavy stone tools such as hand-axes were prevalent. In the Middle Palaeolithic the manufacture of relatively smaller and thinner flake-based tools began. Finally, in the Upper Palaeolithic, very fine tools such as blades and burins began to be made. This sequence of development demonstrates improvement in hunting methods and human skill in stone-knapping.

Evidence of the Upper Palaeolithic culture in Rajasthan has been found mainly in the Pushkar basin and adjoining regions. Evidence of human settlements is found amidst geological changes in this region, which used the refined blade technique. This basin located near Ajmer was a favourable habitat for contemporary human groups where water and hunting opportunities were available. The deposits here have provided important data in understanding this little-known phase of the prehistoric chronology of Rajasthan.

Important archaeological exploration and excavation at sites near Budha Pushkar was carried out by Bridget Allchin. Her work brought to light the cultural transition from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic in this region. Allchin's research presented evidence of the environmental adaptation and technical progress of ancient humans in the eastern part of the Thar desert. The data compiled by her is still considered extremely reliable in the scientific reconstruction of the prehistory of Rajasthan.

The Upper Palaeolithic period was entirely a Stone Age in which the use of metals was unknown. The main feature of this phase was refined stone technology such as blades and burins, and making beads from ostrich eggshells. The climate of that time was extremely arid, due to which human groups had to face difficult conditions. The arrival of copper tools came thousands of years later in the Chalcolithic age. Hence imagining metal tools in the Upper Palaeolithic is historically erroneous.

During the Upper Palaeolithic period, new dimensions of technical and artistic development were seen in Rajasthan. The distinctive tools of this age included burins and long blades that were useful for engraving on bones and wood. Ostrich eggshells obtained from several sites indicate the arid climate of that time. The notion that the climate was humid in this period is wrong; in reality it was a period of intense aridity due to the last Ice Age which affected human settlement.

Budha Pushkar, Hokra and Jayal are sites of the Thar region where remains of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods are found. In contrast, Gilund is an important Chalcolithic site located in Rajsamand district which has been a centre of the Banas culture. At Gilund, evidence of developed agriculture, pottery and the use of copper is found, which is thousands of years later than the hunter-gatherer Palaeolithic culture. Hence, due to its chronological position and cultural features, Gilund is entirely different in this group.

The prehistoric phases of Rajasthan are identified by their distinctive artefacts. Beads made from ostrich eggshells reflect the artistry of the Upper Palaeolithic period. Heavy hand-axes are the primary feature of the Lower Palaeolithic. Flakes made by the Levallois technique are symbols of the technical advancement of the Middle Palaeolithic. Finally, geometric microliths became prevalent in the Mesolithic, which were small and extremely sharp. This classification clarifies the story of the gradual development of human civilisation.

The discovery of ostrich eggshells in Rajasthan is important, but their connection is not with the Neolithic period but rather with the Upper Palaeolithic period. These remains confirm the extremely arid climate of that time when the expansion of the Thar desert was greater. Evidence of artistic engraving and bead-making on these shells obtained from Chandravati and other sites reflects the creativity of early humans. Hence linking them with the Neolithic period is entirely erroneous from a scientific and chronological viewpoint.

The number of Upper Palaeolithic sites in western Rajasthan has been found to be extremely few compared to Middle Palaeolithic sites. The main reason for this was the intense climatic change during the last Ice Age, due to which the entire region became dry and waterless. This severe aridity ended the sources of food and water, making it extremely difficult for human groups to live here. For this reason the settlements of this period were confined only to a few limited and favourable locations.

The famous Mesolithic site Bagor located in Bhilwara district is situated on the left bank of the Kothari river. This river is a part of the Banas system and in ancient times played an important role in maintaining the ecology of this region. Being near the river, the inhabitants here had access to water, fish and wildlife for hunting. Due to this favourable environment, human settlements at Bagor continuously developed for thousands of years. This site is an excellent example of the prehistoric geography of Rajasthan.

The important archaeological excavation at Bagor carried out between 1967 and 1970 was led by Professor V.N. Mishra. The work done under his guidance established Bagor as the largest and most important Mesolithic site of the Indian subcontinent. Mishra carried out an intensive scientific analysis of the microliths and animal remains obtained here, which revealed the secrets of the ancient economy. His efforts gave academic recognition to the prehistory of Rajasthan on a global level.

The major feature of the first phase of Bagor is finding the earliest evidence of animal husbandry along with hunting and gathering. The inhabitants here, along with hunting wild animals, began to rear animals such as sheep, goat and cattle. This transitional period reflects the step from a hunting-dependent society towards a productive society. In this early phase, settled agriculture and metallurgy were absent and microliths were the main means of daily tasks. It was an important turning point in the development of civilisation.

The cultural history of Bagor is divided into three phases that reflect different levels of human development. In the first phase, an aceramic microlithic industry and evidence of animal husbandry are found. In the second phase, copper tools and handmade pottery enter. In the third phase, settlements became more developed with iron tools and wheel-made pottery. It is wrong to say that animal husbandry was absent here, because Bagor is one of the earliest centres of animal husbandry.

In the early Mesolithic remains of Bagor, bones of various domesticated and wild animals such as sheep, goat, pig and cattle have been found in abundance. This evidence confirms a contemporary animal-husbandry-based economy. However, no reliable evidence of the horse has been obtained in this early period. In the history of the Indian subcontinent, the widespread entry of the horse is seen in much later phases. Hence there is no archaeological basis for the presence of the horse in the Mesolithic society of Bagor.

Bagor is a unique archaeological site providing the most ancient and authentic evidence of animal husbandry in the Indian subcontinent. The animal remains obtained here prove that the inhabitants depended on domestic animals along with hunting. However, it would be erroneous to say that they entirely abandoned hunting or became a purely agriculture-based society. In reality their economy was a mixed form of hunting, gathering and animal husbandry. Hunting remained an integral part of their life.

The archaeological site of Bagor is locally known as 'Mahasatiyon ka Tila'. This vast mound is located on the bank of the Kothari river and preserves the history of five thousand years of human civilisation. The excavation of this mound itself yielded important remains from the Mesolithic to the historical period. This name underlines the historical and cultural importance of this place. At present this site remains a rich source of knowledge for researchers.

The microliths obtained from Bagor are famous for their smallness and distinctive geometric shapes. Among these, shapes such as triangles, lunates and trapezes are prominent, which were skilfully made from stones such as chert and quartz. These small tools were used as arrowheads or spears by fixing them in handles of wood or bone. Their size was generally between 1 and 5 centimetres. This technical proficiency demonstrates the advanced tool-making skill of Mesolithic humans.

Geometric microliths are the most important technical achievement of the Mesolithic period. These are very small and sharp pieces of stone shaped into definite geometric forms. Complex tools were prepared by joining them in wood or bone shafts with the help of natural gum. They were used mainly to bring precision to hunting and to cut roots and tubers. This innovation is proof of the growing intellectual and technical capacity of ancient humans.

The stratigraphy of Bagor presents a systematic document of the gradual development of human civilisation. In Phase I, only microliths and animal bones are found where pottery was absent. In Phase II, copper tools and handmade pottery arrive, reflecting the influence of the metal age. Phase III displays the advanced stage of iron tools and wheel-made pottery. The final phase is related to glass beads and modern artefacts of the post-historical period.

The main reason for the continuous human settlement at Bagor for thousands of years was its favourable geographical position. Being near the Kothari river, a continuous supply of water and fish stock was accessible here. In the plains and forests around the river, sufficient wildlife and roots-tubers were available for hunting. This rich ecosystem provided early humans the resources necessary for a safe and stable life, making this site a major centre of prehistory.

The burial tradition at Bagor was distinctive, where evidence of burying bodies beneath the floors of houses within the settlements is found. In the first phase the bodies were laid straight in an east-west direction, while in the second phase the practice of placing them bent was followed. The tradition of placing food and ornaments with the dead for future needs was also prevalent. However, no evidence of any separate cemetery outside the habitation has been found here, which makes it unique among other sites.

Bagor was a prehistoric rural and pastoral settlement whose architecture was extremely simple and natural. The inhabitants here lived in houses with stone floors, mud walls and thatched roofs. Unlike a developed urban civilisation such as Harappa, there was a complete absence of multi-storeyed baked-brick houses here. The structures here were made mainly from local stones and pebbles. Hence the idea of urban construction with baked bricks is historically baseless in the context of Bagor.

The inhabitants of Bagor developed a unique technique of floor-making to protect their dwellings from moisture and provide sturdiness. They paved the floor by laying locally available schist stone slabs and round river pebbles. This architecture shows that even during the Mesolithic period humans had made significant progress towards permanent dwelling. These stone floors have been found in good condition even today in excavation, confirming the skill of that time.

Regarding Bagor, it is erroneous to say that it was, from the beginning, only an agriculture-dominant society. In reality, the identity of Bagor emerged as a hunting-gathering society which gradually adopted animal husbandry. The inhabitants here, while maintaining their dependence on hunting, began rearing animals, which is an indicator of a mixed economy. Evidence of agriculture is found here much later and in a limited form. This site is mainly a centre of the Mesolithic lifestyle and the development of animal husbandry.

The chronological development of Bagor clarifies the sequence of technical progress. The oldest stage is Phase II (the first in archaeological context) where only microliths were used. In the subsequent Phase III, copper tools entered along with stone tools, displaying the Chalcolithic influence. Finally comes Phase I (the latest) where, in place of stone and copper, iron tools became dominant. This sequence is authentic evidence of the gradual rise of the metal age in Rajasthan.

In Rajasthan a separate Neolithic phase like that of South India is not seen. The main reason for this was the availability of abundant copper deposits in the Aravalli ranges. The Mesolithic communities here began the use of copper early along with stone tools, due to which they entered the Chalcolithic age directly. This rapid technical development eliminated the need for an independent Neolithic period. For this reason the co-existence of metal and stone is prominent in the prehistoric cultures of Rajasthan.

Evidence of food production and the steps towards early agriculture in Rajasthan is found in ground and polished stone axes. These refined tools were used for clearing and felling forests to prepare land for agriculture. Although this phase remained brief in Rajasthan, these stone tools reflect the important transition of humans from hunters to producers. These finds prove that ancient communities had begun moulding the environment according to their needs.

During the Neolithic period a revolutionary change came in the technique of stone tool-making. Now tools were not made merely by breaking, but were made extremely smooth and sharp by grinding them on stones. Tools made by this technique were more durable and effective, and could be used skilfully in woodcutting and agricultural tasks. This technical improvement is a sign of human labour skill and their growing scientific understanding of tools.

The beginning of food production in Rajasthan occurred with regional variations. The rich river valleys of south-eastern Rajasthan, due to their favourable environment, eased the transition to settled agriculture. In contrast, in the arid regions of western Rajasthan, due to difficult climatic conditions, animal husbandry remained a major economic strategy. It is erroneous to think that this change occurred simultaneously throughout Rajasthan, because geographical disparity affected the pace and form of development of cultures differently.

On the archaeological map of Rajasthan, sites such as Ahar, Bagor and Didwana represent distinct cultural phases. Ahar is a Chalcolithic culture where the use of copper was dominant. The first phase of Bagor is related to the Mesolithic period, focused on animal husbandry and microliths. Didwana is a centre of the Palaeolithic period. None of these sites falls purely in the 'Neolithic' category as seen in South India. Hence all these sites have their own distinct identity.

The various sites of Rajasthan reflect distinct economic and technical milestones of human civilisation. Didwana represents the stage of Lower Palaeolithic food gathering where early humans depended on nature. The first phase of Bagor reveals the Mesolithic hunting-gathering lifestyle. In the second phase of Bagor, the use of metal and the beginning of systematic animal husbandry can be seen. Finally, Ahar emerged as a mature Chalcolithic agricultural culture where settled rural life was fully developed.

The Neolithic Revolution is known in human history for the beginning of agriculture, domestication of animals and the establishment of settled rural life. During this time the use of polished stone tools increased and humans began to become self-reliant. However, widespread iron smelting is not a feature of this age, because the use of iron began thousands of years later in the Iron Age. The Neolithic period was limited mainly to the development of stone and pottery, where the knowledge of metals was in an early stage.

In Rajasthan there is an absence of an extensive Neolithic phase compared to South India, the main reason for which was geographical conditions. Vast deposits of copper existed in the Aravalli ranges, which attracted the inhabitants here from stone directly towards the use of metal. As soon as the Mesolithic communities learned the use of copper, they became part of the Chalcolithic culture directly without any long Neolithic transition. This technical leap gave a distinctive form to the archaeological identity of Rajasthan.

The Chalcolithic period is called that important transitional age of human civilisation in which tools of copper were used jointly with stone. This period is the link between the end of the Stone Age and the real beginning of the metal age. At this time copper was rare and valuable, so for heavy tasks the use of stone tools continued. In Rajasthan, cultures such as Ahar and Ganeshwar are excellent examples of this age where a balance of copper production and stone tools is seen.

The main basis for the development of Chalcolithic cultures in south-eastern Rajasthan was the system of the Banas river and its tributaries. Due to this fertile plain, important settlements such as Ahar, Gilund and Balathal developed here. For this reason this entire cultural region is known in archaeological terminology as the 'Banas culture'. The rivers not only provided water for agriculture but also acted as routes of transport and trade, due to which the rise of a rich rural civilisation became possible.

The distinctive identity of the Chalcolithic cultures of Rajasthan is the combined use of fine stone tools and copper tools. Although the knowledge of copper had been obtained, it could not entirely replace stone. These communities lived in permanent settlements and depended on agriculture and animal husbandry. They were not nomadic, nor did they build huge temples. Their life was centred mainly around mud houses and advanced metallurgical skill.

In the Chalcolithic cultures of Rajasthan a diversity of pottery is seen, where the black and red ware of Ahar and the ochre pottery of Ganeshwar have their own distinct identity. In the early phases the earthen pots were handmade, which later became more refined with the use of the wheel. Painted grey ware is not a feature of this age because its connection is considered to be with the later Iron Age. The Chalcolithic period is famous mainly for pots with coloured slips and white or black paintings on them.

The regional distribution of Chalcolithic cultures in Rajasthan is very clear. The main centre of the Ahar culture has been the Mewar region, where several important sites have been found near Udaipur and Chittorgarh. The Ganeshwar culture developed not in Marwar but in the Shekhawati region near the Kantali river. The Sothi culture is related to the Bikaner region. Kurada is located in Nagaur, famous for its copper stores. Hence the pair of Ahar and Mewar is entirely true and accurate from a historical and geographical viewpoint.

The Chalcolithic cultures of Rajasthan had built the basis of a strong agro-pastoral economy. Excavation of important sites such as Balathal has yielded clear evidence of the cultivation of wheat, barley and various pulses which prove their advanced agricultural techniques. Along with this, they reared animals such as cattle, buffalo and sheep-goats for milk and meat. This self-reliant economic structure became possible due to the availability of fertile land along the rivers, which provided stability to these ancient settlements.

The Banasian or Ahar culture was a rural and agrarian civilisation compared to the Indus Valley Civilisation. Whereas the Harappan towns had grid-pattern-based streets and a systematic drainage system, the Banasian settlements were unplanned and here houses were made of local stones and mud. There was an absence of huge baked-brick structures like Mohenjo-daro here. The main focus of the Banasian people was on copper smelting and agriculture, while the Harappan civilisation was endowed with urban features. This is a fundamental difference between the two.

In Rajasthan, the ochre coloured pottery tradition has had a close connection with the extraction of copper and its trade. These pots found in cultures such as Ganeshwar are concentrated in those regions where natural deposits of copper were available in abundance. The inhabitants here were skilled in smelting copper and making various types of tools and ornaments from it. This pottery style is the identity of those communities of the Chalcolithic age who laid the foundation of metallurgy in ancient India and ensured the supply of copper to other developed civilisations.

The credit for first recognising the archaeological importance of the Banas culture at Ahar and carrying out its early excavation in the year 1953 goes to Akshay Keerti Vyas. This important work of his gave historical identity to this ancient Chalcolithic civilisation of the Mewar region. Only after the explorations of Vyas did scholars such as Ratan Chandra Agrawal and Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia conduct extensive research here. The contribution of Akshay Keerti Vyas will always be remembered for the beginning of the systematic study of the proto-history of Rajasthan.

The various sites of the Ahar culture are spread across several districts of modern Rajasthan, reflecting its extent. The main site Ahar is located in Udaipur, while Gilund is recognised as an important regional centre in Rajsamand district. Balathal is located in the Vallabhnagar tehsil of Udaipur district, from where evidence of fortification has been found. Ojiyana is another Chalcolithic site located in Bhilwara district that displays the northern expansion of this culture. This geographical distribution confirms the importance of the Banas basin.

The ancient site of Ahar has been known by various names due to its rich history. Due to the abundant production of copper and the presence of smelting centres, it was called 'Tambavati' city in ancient times. In the inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries it is addressed as 'Aghatpur', which reflects its commercial and political importance. Local people also call it 'Dhulkot', which means a mound of dust. Hence both Tambavati and Aghatpur are considered its historical names.

The architecture of Ahar is an example of the skilful use of local resources. The dwellings here were built on platforms of schist stone so that protection from rainwater could be obtained, and mud bricks were used for the upper walls. In excavation, multi-roomed houses have been found in which multiple hearths point towards a joint family system. The widespread use of baked bricks in the construction of ordinary houses has not been seen here. This displays the simplicity and practicality of the rural lifestyle.

The residential structures of Ahar were constructed mainly from local materials. The use of mud and stone foundations was common in the walls here, while the roofs were covered with bamboo and thatch. Unlike the Indus Valley Civilisation, the use of baked bricks in the construction of buildings at Ahar was negligible. The people here preferred sun-dried bricks. This highlights the identity of a strong rural and technically capable agrarian society in place of urbanisation.

Regarding the Ahar culture, it is historically erroneous to say that they were unaware of copper smelting. In reality Ahar was a major centre of copper smelting in ancient India. In excavation, furnaces for smelting copper, copper crucibles and moulds have been obtained which prove their self-reliance. They made their own refined copper tools and supplied them to other regions. In addition, they were also skilled in advanced pottery art and rice cultivation. Hence the argument of importing copper is baseless.

The most attractive feature of the pottery of the Ahar culture is its colour and painting. On the 'black and red ware' here, beautiful geometric and linear designs are made mainly in white colour. In these paintings, wavy lines, dots and floral-leaf-like forms are found which reflect the artistic taste of the craftsmen of that time. The use of white colour stood out very clearly on the black and red base. This distinctive style has become a major archaeological identity of the Ahar culture.

The order of excavation of the Chalcolithic sites of Mewar reveals the various phases of the archaeological history of Rajasthan. First, in 1953, Ahar was explored, which laid the foundation of the Banas culture. After this, in 1959-60, under the leadership of B.B. Lal, the excavation of Gilund took place, which was important for understanding cultural expansion. Finally, in the 1990s, the excavation of Balathal was carried out by V.N. Mishra, which presented new dimensions related to fortification and agriculture.

The first systematic archaeological excavation of Gilund, located in Rajsamand district, was carried out by B.B. Lal in the year 1959-60. This work of his proved that Gilund was a very extensive centre of the Banas culture. By analysing the pottery and structures obtained here, he clarified its relations with the Ahar culture. The efforts of Lal played an important role in providing a strong scientific basis for understanding the chronology and cultural expansion of the Chalcolithic age of Rajasthan.

Gilund is a major centre of the Chalcolithic civilisation, located on the bank of the Banas river in Rajsamand district. This river provided this ancient settlement with life-giving water and fertile soil, which eased the development of agriculture here. It is because of the Banas river that the culture of this entire region is called the 'Banas culture'. The proximity of the river also played a supportive role in contemporary trade and communication. This site is even today a living proof of the ancient civilisation of the Banas valley.

Despite being part of the same culture, Ahar and Gilund have an important difference in architecture. Whereas at Ahar the use of baked bricks was negligible, at Gilund evidence of baked bricks in the construction of some special and large structures has been found. This indicates the relatively more developed structural capacity of Gilund or the presence of some special community building. Although ordinary houses were still made of raw mud and stone. This difference highlights regional diversities.

In the excavation of Gilund, interesting structural remains have been obtained, including a vast complex with parallel mud-brick walls. In addition, large circular pits dug into the ground have been found which were used for the long-term storage of grain. This displays an organised society and their capacity for resource management. Evidence of walls made of reed and mud-plaster has also been found here in abundance, which was a major feature of the contemporary rural construction style.

The Ahar-Gilund culture is a Chalcolithic civilisation where the use of copper was at its peak. Copper axes, steatite beads and terracotta bull figurines have been found here in abundance, which were part of their religious and economic activities. However, iron swords are not included among the artefacts of this culture because the knowledge of iron began thousands of years after the decline of this civilisation. At that time copper was the only major metal used in tool-making.

The various Chalcolithic sites of Rajasthan have unique features. Gilund is known for its distinctive baked-brick structures which are rare at other contemporary sites. At Ahar, multi-mouthed hearths have been found which indicate a joint family system. Balathal is an extraordinary site from where the earliest evidence of leprosy in India has been obtained, and a massive fortified structure has also been found here. This diversity confirms the levels of social and technical development of the Banas culture.

The pottery obtained from Gilund includes black and red ware, plain red ware and painted grey ware, which reflect the Chalcolithic and early historical transition. However, 'Northern Black Polished Ware' is not part of the original culture of Gilund. This style developed during the Mauryan period in the Ganga valley and is a symbol of the second phase of urbanisation. Gilund is famous mainly for its Chalcolithic pottery tradition, which was based on the use of local clay and colours.

Gilund is undoubtedly considered a major regional and administrative centre of the Ahar culture. The vast structural complexes and large pits for grain storage obtained here prove its complex social and economic system. Such facilities were possible only in a well-organised regional centre where the collection and distribution of resources was controlled. These archaeological evidences establish Gilund as an extremely important link of the Banas river valley.

The Ganeshwar civilisation is located near the source of the Kantali river in Sikar district (present-day Neem ka Thana) of Rajasthan. This is a seasonal river which was considered the lifeline of the Shekhawati region. In ancient times this valley was rich in natural deposits of copper, which made possible the rise of a vast copper industry at Ganeshwar. Being on the bank of the river, the inhabitants here had access to water and trade routes. This geographical suitability made Ganeshwar one of the most ancient Chalcolithic cultures of India.

The major archaeological identity of the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura cultural complex is the 'Kapi-varni' or ochre coloured pottery style. The colour of these pots was ochre or light red. These pots were made by those communities of the Chalcolithic period who were skilled in copper mining and metallurgy. As a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, these pots have proved extremely helpful in understanding the cultural relations and technical exchange between the northern part of Rajasthan and the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

The Ganeshwar civilisation is called the 'mother of Copper Age civilisations' because it was the earliest centre of the production and use of copper. It was located near the Khetri copper belt and the level of purity in the copper tools obtained here has been found to be up to 99%. It is entirely false to say that it was a centre of iron smelting. Ganeshwar is a purely Chalcolithic site where iron was not used at all. The invention of iron occurred centuries after this civilisation.

Among the artefacts obtained from Ganeshwar, copper arrowheads, chisels, bangles and fishing hooks have been found in abundance, which display their metallurgical skill. The level of purity in the copper here is surprisingly high, which is proof of advanced smelting techniques. It is utterly false to say that iron agricultural tools were obtained here because this civilisation had developed long before the arrival of the Iron Age. The inhabitants of Ganeshwar depended only on copper and stone tools.

The copper fishing hooks obtained from the Ganeshwar civilisation throw light on the contemporary environmental conditions. They make clear that the Kantali river, which is seasonal at present, was at that time a perennial water source in which fish were available in abundance. Fishing and hunting had an important place in the economy of the inhabitants. This evidence proves the ancient ecology and human adaptation. It is an indicator of the humid climate of that age.

The geographical location of Ganeshwar was extremely close to the copper mines of Khetri, which made it a major metallurgical centre of ancient India. Archaeological evidence indicates that the people of Ganeshwar not only fulfilled local needs but also supplied raw copper to developed Indus cities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. This inter-regional trade enriched the economy of Ganeshwar. This confirms the deep economic relations between Ganeshwar and the Indus civilisation.

Chronologically the Ganeshwar civilisation is considered even older than the developed phase of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Radiocarbon dates establish it as contemporaneous with the pre-Harappan and early Harappan periods. When the Harappan cities were in their early stage, at Ganeshwar copper-smelting technique had fully developed. For this reason it is considered the major basis that supplied metal to the Harappan civilisation. It was such a civilisation of Rajasthan that gave technical strength to ancient urbanisation.

The credit for bringing the vast archaeological potential of Ganeshwar and its historical importance before the world goes to the archaeologist Ratan Chandra Agrawal. The excavation carried out under his leadership in the 1970s revealed a huge store of copper tools from this site. It was he who defined Ganeshwar as the 'mother of Copper Age civilisations' and established its trade relations with the Indus Valley Civilisation. The research of Agrawal brought a revolutionary change in the study of the proto-history of Rajasthan.

The word 'Kalibangan' originated from 'Kali' and 'Bangan' (bangles), whose literal meaning is 'black bangles'. This name was given because of the black bangles of baked clay and stone found in abundance on the surface of the mounds during the excavation of this site. This site is located on the bank of the Ghaggar river in Hanumangarh district. This name is not only the identity of this place but also a symbolic indicator of the ornament-making art and aesthetic sense prevalent in the society of that time.

The classification of the pre-Harappan pottery of Kalibangan has been done on the basis of its texture and decoration. Fabric A represents delicate pots with red-white paintings. The lower part of Fabric B was rough and thick, which increased their sturdiness. In Fabric C, beautiful engraving with black paintings on a red slip is found. Fabric D represents sturdy red pottery with deep engraving on the interior. This technical diversity displays the high-class proficiency of the potters.

The ploughed field obtained from the pre-Harappan level of Kalibangan is an extremely important discovery in human history. It is considered the earliest evidence of a field ploughed for agriculture obtained from any archaeological site in the world. In this field the plough furrows have been found cutting one another at right angles, which indicate the advanced technique of mixed cropping. This discovery proves that the ancestors of the Indus civilisation were extremely skilled and modern in the field of agricultural science and land management.

The pre-Harappan phase of Kalibangan was equipped with several unique features. The entire settlement was surrounded by mud-brick walls for protection, which is proof of early fortification. Here the evidence of the ploughed field shows a mixed cropping pattern. The style of pottery was entirely distinct from the later Harappan period. Archaeological evidence also tells that the end of this settlement occurred from a destructive earthquake. In this phase, mud bricks were used mainly for house construction.

In the pre-Harappan period of Kalibangan, tools such as copper axes, fine steatite beads and stone querns-pestles have been found in abundance which confirm a stable rural life. However, the distinctive seals with figures of the unicorn are absent in this phase because they are the urban identity of the mature Harappan period. The pre-Harappan phase was focused mainly on regional development and early agriculture where a complex administrative system like seals had not yet risen.

The archaeological evidence obtained in the excavation of Kalibangan scientifically proves the occurrence of a powerful earthquake in ancient India. In the levels of the pre-Harappan settlement, the deep cracks in the walls and the collapse of structures point towards tectonic activity. This is the earliest known evidence of destruction caused by an earthquake in the archaeological history of the world. Due to this disaster the early settlement had to be abandoned, after which a planned settlement of the mature Harappan period was established there.

The pattern of plough furrows found in the ploughed field of Kalibangan displays the technique of growing two crops together. In this, clear signs of sowing crops such as wheat and gram together are found, which are suitable for dry farming. Mustard and sesame have also been part of this agricultural system. However, no firm evidence of growing crops requiring excessive water such as rice and sugarcane has been obtained here. This is a sign of their intelligent agricultural strategy.

The archaeological chronology of Kalibangan reflects the struggle between human progress and natural challenges. First, the pre-Harappan culture developed here, which laid the foundation of agriculture. After this, due to a severe earthquake the settlements suffered heavy damage and human habitation was obstructed for some time. Finally, at the same place the mature Harappan phase of the Indus civilisation rose, which gave birth to a systematic urban structure. This stratigraphy is a reliable means of understanding the gradual development of the proto-history of Rajasthan.

The town planning of the mature Harappan phase at Kalibangan is its greatest feature. The entire town was settled on a grid pattern according to a pre-determined plan. The main streets cut one another at right angles and were aligned in north-south and east-west directions so that the natural cleaning of the town by air continued. This systematic layout shows that the inhabitants here were fully acquainted with the principles of geometry and civic management. It is proof of a high-level urban civilisation.

The fire altars obtained at Kalibangan give it a distinctive religious identity separate from other Harappan sites. In the southern part here, seven rectangular fire pits have been found located in a row on a high platform, in which ash and bone remains were found. These point towards the existence of collective rituals or sacrificial practice. Such altars have also been obtained within houses, which show that fire worship was an essential part of their spiritual life.

The residential architecture of Kalibangan was extremely scientific. The houses here were made of sun-dried mud bricks and each house had a central courtyard which was essential for light and air. To maintain urban cleanliness and privacy, the entrances of houses opened not towards the main streets but towards the rear lanes. This was such an art of planning that is considered important even in modern urban development. The main streets were reserved only for smooth movement.

The drainage system of Kalibangan was not one with baked-brick drains like Mohenjo-daro. The people here found alternative solutions with available resources. For the disposal of household wastewater, large earthen pots or soakage pits were buried in the ground along the streets. At some places a unique evidence of using thick hollowed logs of wood as drains has been found. Although there was an absence of covered baked-brick drains, this displays their practical adaptive capacity.

A cylindrical seal obtained from Kalibangan is extremely important from an archaeological viewpoint because such seals were prevalent in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Its presence confirms that the traders of Kalibangan maintained active trade relations with the Gulf countries. It is clear evidence of international exchange. In contrast, remains such as the dancing girl idol have not been found here, which have been the identity mainly of other large cities of the Indus valley. This site is a symbol of trade contact.

The various Harappan sites of the Ghaggar-Hakra region have their own distinct identity. Kalibangan is well known for the evidence of fire altars and the earliest ploughed field. Baror is a site where the abundant use of baked bricks is seen in building construction. Binjor has emerged as an industrial centre where evidence of copper extraction and manufacturing activities is found. From Karanpura an important seal of a seated deity has been obtained which reflects their religious beliefs.

The discovery of a distinctive cylindrical seal at Kalibangan has clarified the position of Rajasthan on the trade map of the ancient world. Cylindrical seals were an essential feature of the Mesopotamian civilisation and their finding at Kalibangan proves that the traders here had close contact with the Sumerian civilisation. Along with goods, ideas and symbols were also exchanged. This discovery establishes Kalibangan as an important international trade centre where distant cultures converged.

The drainage system of Kalibangan is considered less refined compared to Mohenjo-daro because here there was an absence of covered public drains made of baked bricks. In their place the inhabitants here took recourse to local techniques such as soakage pits and hollow logs of wood for wastewater management. Although this system was effective, it did not have the engineering fineness found in other major urban centres. This difference was due to the local construction material.

The Bronze Age is that phase of human history when a new sturdy metal 'bronze' began to be made by mixing tin into copper. Adding tin increased the hardness and durability of copper, due to which it became possible to make more effective tools and weapons. In civilisations such as Kalibangan, the use of bronze was a symbol of technical advancement. Tin was a rare metal that was brought through long-distance trade. This precise mixture of copper and tin played a foundational role in the construction of ancient urban civilisations.

The major burial method discovered in the cemetery of Kalibangan was burying bodies laid straight in rectangular pits. In this the head of the dead was placed towards the north and the feet towards the south, which is called 'extended burial'. In the pit, earthen pots and sometimes ornaments were also placed with the body which were part of their religious beliefs. This method is in accordance with the general traditions of the Harappan civilisation and displays the death-related rites of the society of that time.

During excavation at Kalibangan a child's skull has been obtained in which six holes have been found. According to archaeological analysis, this is an example of early surgery done for the treatment of an ailment such as trepanation or hydrocephaly. This evidence shows that the people of the Harappan civilisation were acquainted with medical science and the treatment of complexities of the brain. It is considered an extremely important and rare archaeological evidence in the direction of the development of surgery in ancient India.

Various burial practices were prevalent at Kalibangan which display the cultural complexity of the society. Here, along with burying bodies straight in rectangular pits, evidence of burying urns in circular pits is also found. In some rectangular pits no human remains have been found which probably indicate some symbolic burial. However, no huge store of gold ornaments has been found in the graves of Kalibangan; there mainly pottery has been found. This simplicity reflects their social values.

At Kalibangan, mainly three methods of burial have been seen: full burial in rectangular pits, urn burial in circular pits, and symbolic burial with only material and no skeleton. Here no practice such as 'dakhma' has been seen in which the body is left exposed for wildlife. This is a different tradition of the last rites which is related to the Parsi religion and is separate from the beliefs of the Harappan civilisation. The people of Kalibangan respectfully buried their dead in the ground.

The earthen pots placed near the dead in the graves of Kalibangan reveal the spiritual beliefs of the society of that time. This practice clearly displays their firm belief in the 'afterlife' or life after death. They believed that the dead would need food, water and pots of daily use for the journey to the next world. This religious idea was prevalent equally not only in the Harappan civilisation but also in many other ancient cultures of the world.

At Kalibangan, burials with only urns and pots and no skeleton were done symbolically for those persons who died somewhere far. This displays the sensitivity of the society. However, it is erroneous to say that the number of pots in all graves was the same. It is clear from excavation that the number of materials placed in a grave varied according to the social position of the dead or the capacity of the family. This is a silent proof of the economic disparity prevalent in the society.

The copper mirrors obtained from the graves of Kalibangan are proof of the high-level aesthetic sense and technical proficiency of the people of that time. The surface of the copper was rubbed and polished so much that it could show a clear reflection. This shows that the Harappans were extremely conscious about personal grooming. The metallurgical skill used in its making proves that they understood the physical properties of metals well. These mirrors were not merely ornaments but a part of their refined standard of living.

The highest density of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites in western Rajasthan is found in the Luni river basin. In this desert region, the Luni and its tributaries were the main source of water, which provided a basis of life to ancient human groups. The stone industries of the Luni basin are called the 'Luni Industry', from where abundant tools made of stones such as chert and jasper have been obtained. This region is a major centre of human adaptation and technical development on the prehistoric map of Rajasthan.

The various geographical regions of Rajasthan have been the basis of distinctive historical cultures. In the Mewar region, a rich Chalcolithic civilisation such as Ahar developed on the bank of the Banas river. In Shekhawati, the valley of the Kantali river became the centre of the Ganeshwar culture, which was famous for copper stores. In the plains of the Ghaggar river, advanced Harappan-period settlements such as Kalibangan were established. In the desert regions of Marwar, Palaeolithic sites such as Didwana are found, which mark the earliest phases of human civilisation.

Regarding the geographical extent of the prehistory of Rajasthan, the notion that there is an absence of human evidence in the Thar desert is entirely erroneous. In reality, regions such as the Luni river valley and Jayal-Didwana have provided a basis for human settlements since the Palaeolithic period. The Aravalli hills provided raw material for tools, while in the south-eastern valleys agriculture developed. The Thar desert was less arid at that time than today and the rivers there provided food and protection to early humans.

The geographical map of Rajasthan presents a clear outline of the prehistoric chronology. The Banas basin, due to its fertile land, has been a centre of Chalcolithic agricultural communities. The Kantali valley gave birth to copper-producing sites such as Ganeshwar. In the Ghaggar valley, a refined Harappan civilisation such as Kalibangan developed and the Luni basin remained famous for Middle Palaeolithic tools. It is wrong to say that the Chambal valley is devoid of rock paintings, because prehistoric rock paintings have been found in abundance in the Kota and Bundi regions.

The main reason for the dense expansion of Chalcolithic settlements in the Mewar region was its unique geographical and mineral richness. The fertile valleys of the Banas and its tributaries provided ideal conditions for settled agriculture. At the same time, the rich copper deposits located in the Aravalli ranges made raw material accessible for smelting and tool-making. This rare combination of agriculture and minerals developed Mewar as a powerful and self-reliant rural civilisation in ancient India.

The wonderful rock paintings of the prehistoric period in Rajasthan are concentrated mainly in the regions of Kota and Bundi located in the valley of the Chambal river. In the sandstone caves here, a huge store of paintings made by early humans has been found. In these paintings, scenes of hunting, collective dances and various wildlife have been depicted vividly, which reveal the artistic sense of the humans of that time. This region is a global centre of prehistoric art due to its natural beauty and historical heritage.

The path of development from the Palaeolithic to the Chalcolithic age is the story of humans moving from a hunting life to a settled productive life. As humans learned agriculture and metallurgy, they moved out of arid regions and were attracted towards the fertile river valleys of southern and eastern Rajasthan. Rivers such as the Banas, Chambal and Sabarmati provided continuous water and fertile land which gave stability and prosperity to settlements. This migration was essential for technical progress and the needs of a growing population.

The Ahar civilisation developed mainly on the bank of the Ahar river, a tributary of the Banas, in Udaipur district of south-eastern Rajasthan. It is considered the major centre of the Banas culture and is related to the Chalcolithic period. On the other hand, in the Bikaner region the remains of cultures of the Ghaggar-Hakra system such as Kalibangan are found. Ahar has no geographical connection with Bikaner because it is entirely the identity of the Mewar region. This site was famous in history for copper-smelting activities.