External Challenges to the Mughal Empire: Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali

At a Glance

• What it is The invasions from the north-west that weakened the Mughal Empire in the eighteenth century
• Nadir Shah Invaded in 1738-39; won at Karnal on 13 February 1739; sacked Delhi
• Ahmad Shah Abdali Invaded between 1748 and 1767; defeated the Marathas at Panipat in 1761
• Main result India again became open to attack from the north-west
• Exam link UPSC Prelims, Modern History: India on the Eve of British Conquest

Where Does It Fit?

This is the first topic of the category on India on the eve of British conquest. It opens with the external shocks that hit the Mughal Empire. The next topic covers the weak rulers who faced those shocks. Previous topic: Structure and Nature of the European Trading Companies.

Why Could the Mughals Not Resist Invasions?

In the absence of internal strength, the Mughals could not put up a firm front against the invasions that came from the north-west. The later Mughals had neglected the north-western borders and spent little effort to protect them. The empire, already weakened by wars of succession and weak rulers, therefore lay open to attack.

What Did Nadir Shah Do in 1738-39?

Nadir Shah, the Persian emperor, attacked India in 1738-39, conquered Lahore and defeated the Mughal army at Karnal on 13 February 1739. Emperor Muhammad Shah was captured, and Delhi was looted and devastated.

According to one estimate, apart from the Peacock Throne and the Kohinoor diamond, seventy crore rupees were collected from the imperial treasury and the safes of the rich nobles. Nadir Shah took the strategically important Mughal territory west of the Indus, including Kabul. India was once again exposed to attacks from the north-west.

One historian has argued that the fifty-seven days of Nadir Shah’s occupation of Delhi in 1739 had effects far beyond their length. They broke the existing centres of authority and shrank Mughal power. They released bands of mounted warriors who raided the countryside for wealth. They pushed traders behind the walls of whichever power held the strongest forts. For a time, plunder rather than negotiation became the most effective tool for creating new centres of wealth. This created conditions in which the East India Company could conquer territory for the first time.

What Were Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions?

Ahmad Shah Abdali, also called Ahmad Shah Durrani, was chosen as Nadir Shah’s successor after the latter’s death in 1747. He invaded India several times between 1748 and 1767 and kept harassing the Mughals.

The Third Battle of Panipat was fought on 14 January 1761. Najib-ud-Daula and the Rohilla chiefs were key allies of Abdali, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh, joined his side in 1760. The topic on the Marathas and Panipat covers the battle itself.

Why Did Many Decisive Battles Happen at Panipat?

Panipat lies in present-day Haryana on the banks of the Yamuna, between the fertile plains of the Ganga and the Indus. Three battles there changed the course of Indian history.

• Strategic location Invaders usually came from the north or north-west through the Khyber Pass to take Delhi. Moving an army through the deserts of Rajasthan or the forested north was risky, so rulers at Delhi preferred to fight at Panipat
• Closeness to Delhi It made it easier to carry weapons and supplies while keeping the capital away from the fighting
• Flat ground The flat land suited cavalry, the main mode of warfare then
• Grand Trunk Road After Sher Shah Suri built it (1540-45), Panipat lay on this route, which helped conquerors to reach it
• Short monsoon The region has shorter rains than other areas, which made fighting easier
• Skilled artisans Local smiths could replenish weapons and war material

Why Is This Topic Important?

• Cause of Mughal collapse The invasions removed the last shreds of imperial authority and treasure
• Direct facts Karnal (1739), the Peacock Throne and Abdali’s dates are common Prelims items
• Link to the Marathas The invasions led directly to Panipat and shaped the Maratha story

What Came Next?

The next topic covers the weak rulers after Aurangzeb, the internal challenge that made the invasions so damaging. Next topic: Weak Rulers After Aurangzeb and the Internal Challenges.

Key People and Terms

• Nadir Shah The Persian ruler who defeated the Mughals at Karnal in 1739
• Karnal The battlefield where Nadir Shah beat the Mughal army on 13 February 1739
• Ahmad Shah Abdali The Afghan ruler (Durrani) who invaded India from 1748 to 1767
• Najib-ud-Daula The Rohilla chief made Mir Bakhshi by Abdali in 1757
• Mir Bakhshi The head of the imperial military and records department
• Peacock Throne The Mughal throne taken to Persia by Nadir Shah

Exam Corner

Mains Angle

Questions ask how the invasions affected the Mughal Empire. These points add depth.

• Loss of wealth and prestige The sack of Delhi and the loss of territory west of the Indus shrank imperial power
• New political space Plunder and weak forts encouraged regional chiefs to build their own power
• Opening for outsiders The weakness helped the English company to enter Indian politics