Archival Sources: Central, State, Judicial and Private Records
Modern History › Sources and Approaches to Modern Indian History · Topic 1.1
Archival sources are the original official and private records of a period. For modern India they include central and state government records, records of the three Presidencies, judicial records, published papers, private papers and records kept abroad.
11 min read · UPSC Prelims · History · Sources of Modern Indian History
At a Glance
- What it is The original records of governments, courts, families and organisations that historians use to write the history of modern India
- Four official categories Central government archives, state government archives, records of intermediate and subordinate authorities, and judicial records
- Beyond official records Private archives and archives preserved in other countries
- Key central body The National Archives of India, New Delhi
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Modern History: Sources of Modern Indian History
Where Does It Fit?
This is the first topic of the category on sources and approaches. Before studying events from the arrival of the Europeans to Independence, a student should know what evidence those events are written from. Archives are the main evidence, so the next topics on memoirs, newspapers and the approaches of historians build on this one.
What Are Archives and Why Do They Matter?
Archives are collections of historical records and documents, usually primary sources. These are documents created as a necessary part of some activity, whether administrative, legal, social or commercial. They are unique, original documents that were not consciously written to give information to a future generation.
For modern India, the most important part of the archives is the official record, that is, the papers of government agencies at various levels. The records of the East India Company give a detailed account of trading conditions between 1600 and 1857. When the British Crown took over the administration, it also kept a large variety and volume of official records.
These records let historians trace every important development stage by stage. They also show how decisions were made and what the policy-makers were thinking. The records of the Portuguese, Dutch and French companies are useful for the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They matter mainly for economic history, but they also say much about the political set-up.
What Are the Main Categories of Archives?
Modern Indian history draws on four categories of official records, along with private and foreign collections.
| Category | What it covers |
|---|---|
| Central government archives | Records of the Government of India, held mainly in the National Archives of India, New Delhi |
| State government archives | Records of former British Indian provinces, princely states and foreign administrations other than British |
| Intermediate and subordinate authorities | Records of the three Presidencies and other lower authorities |
| Judicial records | Proceedings of the early courts, such as Mayor’s Courts and Supreme Courts |
| Private archives | Papers of leaders and families, and records of organisations, banks and business houses |
| Foreign repositories | Records kept in London, Paris, The Hague, Copenhagen, Lisbon and Pakistan |
What Do the Central Government Archives Hold?
The National Archives of India in New Delhi contains most of the archives of the Government of India. Its records come in groups that match the branches of the secretariat at different stages of its growth. The work of the East India Company was divided among public or general, revenue, political, military, secret, commercial, judicial and education branches, and each kept its own set of records.
Several series are worth remembering for the exam:
- Survey of India records The Survey of India began to map the country scientifically after James Rennell became the first Surveyor General of Bengal in 1767. Its records and the surveyors’ journals describe geography as well as social and economic conditions
- Public, judicial and legislative proceedings These give ample data on the social and religious policies of the colonial government
- Educational records They show government policy on education and the growth of the education system
- Home Political series Papers on the rise of the nationalist movement were first part of the public series of the Home Department. In 1907 a new series, Home Political, was started for political and communal issues
- Reforms Office records They are useful for a study of the constitutional developments between 1920 and 1937
Where Are the Records of the States and Princely States?
State archives hold three kinds of material: the records of the former British Indian provinces, the records of the princely states that joined the Indian Union after 1947, and the records of foreign administrations other than the British. They also hold the records of Indian powers that the British took over.
| Collection | Where it is | What it helps us study |
|---|---|---|
| Khalsa Darbar records, 1800 to 1849 | Records of the Kingdom of Lahore | The Sikh state before its annexation |
| Peshwa Daftar | Alienation Office, Pune | The most valuable single source for Maratha history for almost a century before the fall of the Peshwas |
| Records of Jaipur, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Udaipur | Rajasthan State Archives, Bikaner | The princely states of Rajasthan |
| State papers of Dogra rule from 1846 | Jammu | The history of Jammu and Kashmir under the Dogras |
| Records of Gwalior, Indore, Bhopal and Rewa; Travancore and Cochin; Mysore; Kolhapur | Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra | Other significant princely states |
What Do the Presidency Archives Tell Us?
The three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay each kept their own records, and each region tells a different part of the story.
- Bengal The early records of Fort William were lost when Calcutta was sacked in 1756. After the British victory at Plassey the records survive more or less as a complete series, partly in the National Archives of India and partly in the State Archives of West Bengal
- Madras The records begin in 1670 and include those of the Governor and Council of Fort St George. They carry plenty of information on the rise of the English Company as a political power in the south and the Deccan, including the Anglo-French struggle and its conflicts with Indian powers
- Bombay The archives are housed in the Maharashtra Secretariat Record Office, Mumbai. They are very useful for the history of Western India: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sindh and the Kannada-speaking districts that joined Mysore in 1956
How Do Judicial and Other European Records Help?
Judicial records are the proceedings and minutes of the early courts. The archives of the Mayor’s Court at Fort St George, beginning in 1689, are the earliest available judicial archives, and they are housed in the Madras Record Office. The pre-Plassey records of the Mayor’s Court at Fort William have been lost, but those for 1757 to 1773 are in the Calcutta High Court record room along with the archives of the Supreme Court of Bengal, 1774 to 1861. The Mayor’s Court at Bombay was established in 1728, and its records are in the Maharashtra Secretariat Record Office along with those of the Bombay Recorder’s Court and the Supreme Court. Copies of wills, probates and letters of administration in these files help genealogical studies and show the state of society and the economy.
Records of the other European powers are scattered across several places.
| Power | Where the records are |
|---|---|
| Portuguese | Goa, mainly 1700 to 1900, including orders from Lisbon and reports sent from India to Portugal |
| Dutch | Records of Cochin and Malabar in the Madras Record Office; records of Chinsura in the State Archives of West Bengal |
| French | Records of Chandernagore and Pondicherry (now Puducherry) were taken to Paris before the French left these settlements |
| Danish | Transferred to Copenhagen when the Danes sold Tranquebar and Serampore to the English Company in 1845; remaining Tranquebar records, 1777 to 1845, are in the Madras Record Office |
What Are Published, Private and Foreign Archives?
Published archives include the Parliamentary Papers, which carry excerpts from the records of the East India Company and the Government of India under the Crown. They also include reports of parliamentary select committees, royal commissions on subjects such as education, civil reforms and famines, parliamentary debates on the Indian empire, proceedings of the Indian and provincial legislatures, weekly gazettes and collections of laws and regulations.
Private archives hold the papers of individuals and families who shaped modern India. The papers of eminent nationalist leaders and the records of organisations such as the Indian National Congress are kept at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library in New Delhi. The archives of banks, business houses and chambers of commerce help the study of economic change.
Foreign repositories hold a large body of material:
- India Office Records, London Minutes of the Court of Directors and the General Court of the East India Company, the Board of Control, and the records of the Secretary of State and the India Council
- British Museum Papers of viceroys, secretaries of state and other senior officials posted in India
- Missionary societies Archives such as those of the Church Missionary Society of London show educational and social development
- Paris, The Hague, Copenhagen and Lisbon French, Dutch, Danish and Portuguese records respectively
- Pakistan The West Pakistan Record Office at Lahore, the Record Office at Peshawar and records in Sind shed light on regional history and on relations with Afghanistan and Iran
How Should a Student Read Archival Evidence?
Archives are original, but they are not neutral. Most of the official records were written by the government for its own work, so they show how the government saw events. This is an analytical point, not a statement from any single record.
A careful reader therefore compares different kinds of archives. Official proceedings can be set beside private papers, judicial records, newspapers and foreign records. Where several independent sources agree, the evidence is stronger.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Foundation of the subject All later topics on the Company, the Revolt of 1857 and the national movement rest on these records
- Direct Prelims facts Locations such as the Peshwa Daftar in Pune and the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library are asked as match-the-following items
- Mains skill Knowing the type of source helps in answering questions on historiography and the reliability of evidence
What Came Next?
The next topic covers memoirs, travel accounts, newspapers, oral evidence, creative literature and paintings, the sources that add the voices of people to the official record. Next topic: Memoirs, Travel Accounts, Newspapers, Oral Evidence, Literature and Paintings as Sources.
Key People and Terms
- Archives Collections of original records, usually primary sources, made during administrative, legal, social or commercial activity
- National Archives of India The body in New Delhi that holds most of the archives of the Government of India
- Peshwa Daftar The record collection in the Alienation Office, Pune, valuable for Maratha history
- Home Political The series started in 1907 for records on political and communal issues
- India Office Records The records in London of the Company, the Board of Control and the Secretary of State
- James Rennell The first Surveyor General of Bengal, appointed in 1767
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Four official categories: central, state, subordinate authorities, judicial; plus private and foreign.
- The National Archives of India is in New Delhi; the Peshwa Daftar is in the Alienation Office, Pune.
- The Home Political series began in 1907.
- Records of Congress leaders are at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi.
- Earliest judicial archives: Mayor’s Court, Fort St George, from 1689.
Do Not Confuse With
- Presidency archives and judicial records Presidency archives are administrative; judicial records are court proceedings, wills and probates
- Published and private archives Published archives include Parliamentary Papers and gazettes; private archives are papers of individuals, families and organisations
- Records kept in India and abroad India Office Records are in London; French records of Pondicherry were taken to Paris
Memory Hook
Official, private, foreign: three shelves, one story, read together.
Mains Angle
Questions on sources usually ask how a historian uses evidence. These points add depth.
- Variety of evidence Central, state, judicial, private and foreign archives together give a fuller picture than any one of them
- Official viewpoint Government records show how the rulers saw events, so they need to be checked against other sources
- Regional balance Presidency and princely state archives show that the history of the period is not only the history of one capital
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Archives are the most important source of modern Indian history, but they cannot be used alone. Discuss.”
How to Answer
- Define Say what archives are: original records created in the course of administrative, legal, social or commercial activity.
- Show strength Give examples such as the National Archives of India, the Peshwa Daftar and judicial records.
- Show limits Point out that most official records reflect the government’s view of events.
- Conclude Say that comparing official, private, judicial and foreign records, with newspapers and memoirs, gives a balanced history.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What are archival sources in modern Indian history?
Archival sources are original records created during administrative, legal, social or commercial activity, such as the papers of the East India Company and the Government of India. They are kept in central, state, judicial, private and foreign repositories and are the main evidence for modern Indian history.
Where is the National Archives of India located?
The National Archives of India is located in New Delhi and holds most of the archives of the Government of India. Its records are arranged in groups that match the branches of the secretariat, such as public, revenue, political, military, secret, commercial, judicial and education.
What is the Peshwa Daftar?
The Peshwa Daftar is a collection of records housed in the Alienation Office, Pune. It is the most valuable single source for the study of Maratha history for almost a century before the fall of the Peshwas, according to the standard account of archival sources.
What is the Home Political series?
Home Political is a series of records started in 1907 in the Home Department to deal exclusively with political and communal issues. Before that, papers on the rise of the nationalist movement were part of the public series of the Home Department.
Where are the records of the Indian National Congress kept?
The papers of eminent leaders of the nationalist movement and the records of organisations such as the Indian National Congress are kept at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library in New Delhi. These private archives are a key source for the freedom struggle.
Which foreign archives matter for modern Indian history?
Important foreign repositories include the India Office Records in London, papers in the British Museum, the Archives Nationale in Paris, the Rijksarchief at The Hague, and archives in Copenhagen and Lisbon. Records in Lahore and Peshawar in Pakistan also matter for regional history.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 The Peshwa Daftar is housed in the Alienation Office, Pune.
It is a major source for Maratha history.
2 The Home Political series of records was started in 1907.
It dealt exclusively with political and communal issues.
3 The records of the Indian National Congress are kept at the National Archives of India in Mumbai.
They are kept at the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library in New Delhi.
4 The earliest available judicial archives are those of the Mayor's Court at Fort St George, beginning in 1689.
They are housed in the Madras Record Office.
5 James Rennell became the first Surveyor General of Bengal in 1767.
His appointment started the scientific mapping by the Survey of India.
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