Maarg Manthan · Topic 9.10

World Population Policies and Family Planning Programmes

Geography › Population and Demography · Topic 9.10

Countries differ widely in their population policies. Anti-natalist policies aim to lower births: China's one-child policy (1979 to 2015, then two children from 2016 and three from 2021), India's family planning since 1952, and programmes in Bangladesh, Iran, Indonesia and Thailand. Pronatalist policies aim to raise births, as in France, Hungary, Russia, Japan and South Korea, which offer cash, leave and housing support. Since the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994, policies emphasise reproductive rights, women's education and health, and not targets.

5 min read · UPSC Prelims · Geography · Population and Demography

At a Glance

Anti-natalist China, India, Bangladesh, Iran
Pronatalist France, Hungary, Russia, Japan, South Korea
China One child 1979 to 2015; three from 2021
Global shift Cairo 1994: rights and choice
UN agency UNFPA (1969)
Exam link UPSC Prelims, Geography: Population and Demography

Where Does It Fit?

This topic follows the National Population Policy of India and places it in the world context. It closes the macro on population by comparing the experience of countries that tried to slow or raise their birth rates. Previous topic: National Population Policy of India (2000). Next topic: Features and Patterns of India’s Urbanization.

What Are Anti-Natalist Policies?

Country	Policy	Outcome and lesson
China	One-child policy from 1979, with fines and, at times, forced abortions and sterilisation; relaxed to two children in 2016 and three in 2021	Fertility fell, but part of the fall came before the policy; population is ageing, the sex ratio at birth is skewed, and the labour force is shrinking. China’s population began to fall from 2022
India	Family planning programme since 1952; voluntary approach after 1977; NPP 2000	Fertility is now around replacement; the programme has focused strongly on female sterilisation
Bangladesh	Community-based family planning, with lady health workers and a push to girls’ schooling	Fertility fell quickly at low income; a model of low-cost success
Iran	Strong family planning in the 1990s, with a requirement of a pre-marriage course	Fertility fell sharply; Iran later reversed to a pronatalist policy
Indonesia, Thailand	Voluntary programmes with strong publicity and a wide supply of contraceptives	Marked falls in fertility

What Are Pronatalist Policies?

France: family allowances, tax benefits, childcare and parental leave, which keep its fertility higher than that of many European countries.
Hungary and Russia: cash payments, loan waivers for mothers and housing support to raise births.
Japan and South Korea: subsidised child care and cash grants, yet fertility remains very low, near 1.2 in Japan and below 1 in South Korea.
Others: Singapore changed from the ‘Stop at Two’ policy of the 1970s to baby bonuses from 2000. Several European and East Asian countries also encourage immigration.
Lesson: cash incentives have had only a small effect, because the cost of housing and child-rearing, women’s work and later marriage are the reasons for low fertility.

What Does the Present Pattern Look Like?

Fertility has fallen almost everywhere. Roughly two-thirds of the world’s people live in countries with fertility at or below the replacement level, and the highest fertility is concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa, where women have on average about four to five children. The world’s population growth rate has halved since the 1960s, from about 2 per cent a year to about 1 per cent. Because of the momentum of young age structures, population will still grow for decades in Africa and parts of South Asia, while Europe, East Asia and some countries in Latin America will see falling numbers. Governments are therefore turning from the question of how to slow growth to how to adapt: educating girls, raising productivity, extending working life, welcoming migrants, and preparing for care of the old. The United Nations publishes the World Population Prospects every two years, and the latest edition should be checked for the exact figures.

How Has the Global Approach Changed?

Early phase (1950s to 1980s): concern over population explosion led to targets and incentives; the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) began work in 1969. World Population Day is observed on 11 July.
Bucharest (1974) and Mexico City (1984): world population conferences debated links between population and development.
Cairo 1994: the International Conference on Population and Development moved the focus from numbers to the rights, health and choice of individuals, especially women, putting reproductive health and education at the centre.
Sustainable Development Goals (2015): include universal access to sexual and reproductive health care (target 3.7), gender equality and education for all girls.
Now: the world population is about 8 billion, growth is slowing, and the United Nations expects a peak around the 2080s. More than half of countries have fertility below replacement.

The effect of these policies on India is in National Population Policy of India (2000), and the challenges they try to meet in Population Challenges in Developing and Developed Countries. As an analytical point, the successful programmes combined access to contraception with girls’ schooling, child survival and women’s work, whereas the coercive ones brought lasting social damage.

Why Is This Topic Important?

Contrast Anti- and pronatalist
China One-child policy
Shift Rights approach

What Came Next?

The next macro covers urbanisation, settlements and migration, beginning with the features of India’s urbanisation. Next topic: Features and Patterns of India’s Urbanization.

Key People and Terms

Anti-natalist Policy to lower births
Pronatalist Policy to raise births
UNFPA UN Population Fund
ICPD Cairo conference of 1994
Baby bonus Cash payment for a birth
Reproductive rights Right to decide on births

Exam Corner

Points to Remember

China: one child 1979; three children 2021.
Cairo conference: 1994.
UNFPA began in 1969.
World Population Day: 11 July.
Cash incentives have had small effects on births.

Do Not Confuse With

Anti-natalist and pronatalist Slowing versus raising births
Bucharest 1974 and Cairo 1994 Development debate versus rights approach
UNFPA and UNICEF Population fund versus children’s fund

Memory Hook

China one, then two, then three; France pays, Cairo says: let women choose.

Mains Angle

Questions ask for a comparison of country experiences. These points add depth.

Coercion Costs of the one-child policy
Incentives Limits of cash for births
Rights Education and choice work best

A Question You May Face

An original practice question, not a past paper question.

“Compare the population policies of China and India and discuss the shift of global policy after the Cairo conference of 1994.”

How to Answer

China One-child policy and effects.
India Voluntary approach.
Pronatalism Rich countries.
Cairo Rights approach.

GS Relevance

Prelims: China's policy, pronatalist policies, UNFPA, ICPD. GS Paper 1: population; GS Paper 2: international institutions.

Frequently Asked Questions

What was China's one-child policy?

China's one-child policy, introduced in 1979, limited most urban couples to one child, using fines and sometimes coercion. It was relaxed to two children in 2016 and to three in 2021 because of an ageing population and a shrinking workforce. China's population began to decline from 2022.

What are pronatalist policies?

Pronatalist policies are those that try to raise the birth rate, used by countries with low fertility and ageing populations. They include cash payments, tax benefits, paid parental leave, subsidised child care and housing support, as in France, Hungary, Russia, Japan and South Korea.

What was the Cairo Conference of 1994?

The International Conference on Population and Development, held in Cairo in 1994, shifted global population policy from demographic targets to the rights, health and choices of individuals, especially women. It put reproductive health, education of girls and gender equality at the centre of population and development policy.

What is UNFPA?

The United Nations Population Fund, begun in 1969, is the UN agency for sexual and reproductive health. It supports family planning, maternal health and data on population in developing countries, and helped to organise the International Conference on Population and Development. World Population Day, on 11 July, was started in 1989.

Why have cash incentives had little effect on births?

Low fertility in rich countries is due to high housing and child-rearing costs, women's careers, later marriage, and uncertain jobs, and not only to money. Cash grants and leave help families but have raised birth rates only modestly, as seen in Japan, South Korea and Singapore.

PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis

1 China introduced the one-child policy in 1979.

True

It allowed three children from 2021.

2 The Cairo conference of 1994 focused on setting national population targets.

False

It focused on rights, health and choice.

3 France follows a pronatalist policy.