Water Resources: Utilization, Water Contamination, Conservation Methods
Geography › Oceanography · Topic 6.15
Water resources are the sources of fresh water that can be used for drinking, farming, industry and power. India has about 4 per cent of the world's fresh water but around 17 per cent of its people. Agriculture takes more than four-fifths of the water used, and groundwater supplies a large part of irrigation and drinking water. Contamination by sewage, industrial waste, fertilisers and natural minerals such as arsenic and fluoride reduces the supply. Conservation relies on rainwater harvesting, watershed management, efficient irrigation, reuse and better governance.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · Geography · Oceanography
At a Glance
- India’s share About 4 per cent of fresh water; about 17 per cent of people
- Largest user Agriculture
- Per capita availability About 1,500 cubic metres a year, and falling
- Contaminants Sewage, fertiliser, arsenic, fluoride
- Key schemes Jal Jeevan Mission, Atal Bhujal Yojana
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Geography: Oceanography
Where Does It Fit?
This topic follows the topics on the ocean and the hydrological cycle and turns to the fresh water that people depend on. It leads to the topic on river linking, which is one of the proposed responses to water scarcity. Previous topic: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Next topic: Interlinking of Rivers Projects and Challenges with Ageing Dams.
How Much Water Does India Have and How Is It Used?
- Supply: India receives about 4,000 billion cubic metres of precipitation a year, but a large share is lost by evaporation and runoff to the sea. The Central Water Commission estimates the utilisable water at about 1,120 billion cubic metres, from surface water and groundwater.
- Per capita availability: it fell from over 5,000 cubic metres a year in 1951 to about 1,500 cubic metres by the early 2020s, close to the limit of 1,700 cubic metres, below which a country is called water-stressed. Below 1,000 cubic metres, it is called water-scarce. The exact figures are revised, so the latest report should be checked.
- Uses: agriculture takes over 80 per cent of withdrawals, mainly for irrigation, with domestic use, industry and power making up the rest. India is the largest user of groundwater in the world.
- Uneven supply: rain is concentrated in the monsoon, and regions differ: the Brahmaputra basin is water-rich, while parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and the peninsula are stressed.
- Groundwater: irrigation by tube wells, helped by free or cheap electricity, has lowered the water table in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Central Ground Water Board assesses the state of extraction every year.
What Causes Water Contamination?
| Source | Contaminants and effects |
|---|---|
| Domestic sewage | Untreated sewage is the largest source of pollution in rivers, with high biochemical oxygen demand and disease-causing organisms; only part of the sewage generated is treated |
| Industrial effluents | Heavy metals, chemicals and heat from tanneries, textiles, mines and power plants |
| Agriculture | Nitrates and phosphates from fertilisers and pesticide residues, which cause eutrophication and contaminate groundwater |
| Natural minerals | Arsenic in the Ganga-Brahmaputra plains, especially West Bengal and Bihar; fluoride in Rajasthan and the peninsula; salinity in coastal and arid zones |
| Solid waste and plastics | Dumped in rivers and drains |
| Sea water intrusion | Over-pumping near the coast draws salt water into freshwater aquifers |
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 is the main law, with the Central and State Pollution Control Boards as regulators. Clean-up programmes for rivers, such as Namami Gange, are described in the Environment subject.
How Can Water Be Conserved?
- Rainwater harvesting: collecting roof and surface runoff, using traditional systems like johads, tankas, baolis and kuls, and modern recharge pits and check dams.
- Watershed management: treating a whole catchment with contour bunds, farm ponds and plantations.
- Efficient irrigation: drip and sprinkler systems, laser levelling, and better crop choices, under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana’s ‘per drop more crop’. Less water-hungry crops such as millets and pulses in dry regions also help.
- Reuse and recycling: treated sewage for industry and gardens, and reduction of leakage in urban supply.
- Governance and pricing: metering, rational tariffs, participation of users and groundwater regulation.
- Demand reduction: reducing waste and the water footprint of products.
Which Government Schemes Address Water?
| Scheme | Aim |
|---|---|
| Jal Shakti Ministry (2019) | Combined ministry for water resources and drinking water |
| Jal Jeevan Mission (2019) | Tap water supply to rural households |
| Atal Bhujal Yojana (2019) | Community-led groundwater management in water-stressed areas of seven states |
| Jal Shakti Abhiyan and Catch the Rain | Campaigns for rainwater harvesting and water conservation |
| PMKSY | Irrigation reach and efficiency, and watershed development |
| Amrit Sarovar (2022) | Building or reviving 75 water bodies in each district |
| Dam Safety Act, 2021 | Safety of large dams |
As an analytical point, India’s challenge is as much about managing demand and quality as about increasing supply. The water cycle behind all of this is in The Hydrological Cycle: Components and Processes, and the case of dams and river linking in Interlinking of Rivers Projects and Challenges with Ageing Dams.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Scarcity Per capita availability
- Schemes Current affairs
- Quality Contamination issues
What Came Next?
The next topic covers interlinking of rivers and the challenges of ageing dams. Next topic: Interlinking of Rivers Projects and Challenges with Ageing Dams.
Key People and Terms
- Water stress Availability below 1,700 cubic metres per person
- Water scarcity Availability below 1,000 cubic metres per person
- Aquifer Groundwater-holding rock
- Eutrophication Nutrient pollution causing algal bloom
- Rainwater harvesting Collecting rain for use or recharge
- Watershed Catchment area of a stream
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- India has about 4 per cent of the world’s fresh water.
- Water stress threshold: 1,700 cubic metres per person.
- Agriculture uses over 80 per cent of water.
- Atal Bhujal Yojana is for groundwater.
- Arsenic is a problem in the Ganga plains.
Do Not Confuse With
- Water stress and water scarcity 1,700 versus 1,000 cubic metres per person
- Jal Jeevan Mission and Atal Bhujal Yojana Tap water versus groundwater management
- Surface water and groundwater Rivers and lakes versus aquifers
Memory Hook
Four per cent water, seventeen per cent people; harvest, save, clean and reuse.
Mains Angle
Questions ask for causes of scarcity and policy responses. These points add depth.
- Scarcity Supply, demand, distribution
- Quality Contamination
- Response Conservation and governance
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Examine the causes of water stress in India and evaluate the measures taken for conservation of water resources.”
How to Answer
- Status Availability and uses.
- Causes Demand, groundwater, pollution.
- Measures Traditional and modern.
- Schemes Jal Jeevan, Atal Bhujal.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
How much fresh water does India have?
India has about 4 per cent of the world's fresh water resources but supports about 17 per cent of its population. The utilisable water is estimated at about 1,120 billion cubic metres, and per capita availability has fallen to roughly 1,500 cubic metres a year, bringing the country close to water stress.
What is the difference between water stress and water scarcity?
A country is considered water-stressed when annual per capita water availability falls below 1,700 cubic metres, and water-scarce when it falls below 1,000 cubic metres. India's per capita figure is near the stress threshold and is expected to fall further as the population grows.
What are the main causes of water contamination in India?
The main causes are untreated sewage, industrial effluents, fertilisers and pesticides from farms, and natural contaminants such as arsenic and fluoride in groundwater. Dumping of solid waste and sea water intrusion along the coast add to the problem. Pollution reduces the water that is safe to use.
What are the methods of water conservation?
Methods include rainwater harvesting, watershed management, drip and sprinkler irrigation, recharge of groundwater, reuse of treated wastewater, reducing leaks in supply systems, and growing less water-demanding crops. Traditional structures like johads and baolis, and community management of water, also play an important role.
What is the Atal Bhujal Yojana?
The Atal Bhujal Yojana, launched in 2019, is a Central scheme for community-led management of groundwater in water-stressed areas of seven states: Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. It rewards communities for better groundwater management and for reducing the use of water.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Agriculture is the largest user of water in India.
It takes over 80 per cent.
2 India has more than a quarter of the world's fresh water.
It has about 4 per cent.
3 Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem in the Ganga plains.
West Bengal and Bihar are affected.
4 The Jal Jeevan Mission aims to provide tap water to rural households.
It began in 2019.
Past Mains Questions on This Topic
This topic comes under Oceanography. UPSC Mains questions asked on the matching syllabus topic, year-wise with marks:
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