Migration – Streams and Causes
Geography › Human Geography and Population · Topic 17.7
Migration is the movement of people from a place of origin to a place of destination, permanently, temporarily or seasonally. It may be internal or international, voluntary or forced. In India the streams are rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to urban and urban to rural, and the main causes are marriage, employment, education and family movement. Push factors make the origin unattractive and pull factors make the destination attractive.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · Geography · Human Geography and Population
At a Glance
- Push factors Unemployment, conflict, disasters, poverty
- Pull factors Jobs, better services, safety, climate
- Largest stream in India Rural to rural, mostly women for marriage
- Migration rate 28.9 per cent (PLFS 2020–21)
- Women About 48 per cent migrate, mostly for marriage
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Geography: Human Geography and Population
Where Does It Fit?
This is the seventh topic of the macro on human geography and population. The previous topic gave the key patterns of the Census 2011, and this one explains one of the three components of population change, migration. The next topic covers the consequences of migration. Previous topic: India Census 2011 – Key Population Patterns. Next topic: Consequences of Migration.
What Is Migration and What Are Its Types?
In short: migration is a change of residence, and who moves, how far and why varies greatly.
| Basis | Types |
|---|---|
| Boundary crossed | Internal migration within a country, and international migration across borders |
| Duration | Permanent, temporary, seasonal (such as farm labour at harvest) and circular, in which workers go back and forth repeatedly |
| Choice | Voluntary, by free decision; and forced, because of conflict, persecution or disaster, as in the case of refugees and internally displaced people |
| Direction | Immigration is movement into a place, and emigration is movement out; net migration is the difference |
| Distance and region | Intra-state, inter-state, and rural or urban origin and destination |
The place of origin loses population and the place of destination gains. Migration is the third factor, together with births and deaths, in the change of population, as in Population Change and Demographic Transition.
What Are the Causes of Migration?
| Factor | Push (origin) | Pull (destination) |
|---|---|---|
| Economic | Unemployment, low income, agrarian distress, loss of land, poverty | Jobs and higher wages, industries and services, business opportunities |
| Social and cultural | Marriage customs, caste or ethnic discrimination, lack of schools and health care | Better schools, hospitals, family networks and city amenities |
| Political | War, persecution, political unrest, and lack of security | Peace, stability, safety of life and political freedom |
| Environmental | Floods, droughts, cyclones, sea-level rise, land degradation, epidemics | A pleasant climate and fertile land |
Migration is also affected by the cost of movement, networks of earlier migrants, transport links and government policy. Climate-related displacement is rising: the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre reports millions of new displacements each year in South Asia from floods and storms, and the sinking of delta lands and the loss of livelihoods in the Sundarbans and in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta are drivers of movement, as in Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.
What Are the Patterns of Migration in India?
- Streams: rural to rural migration is the largest, and is mostly of women who move after marriage; rural-urban migration is mostly of men looking for work; urban to urban is the movement between towns; and urban to rural is the smallest.
- Scale: the Census of 2011 recorded about 45 crore migrants by place of last residence, about 37 per cent of the population. The Periodic Labour Force Survey of 2020–21 put the migration rate at 28.9 per cent; the rate was about 48 per cent among women and about 11 per cent among men, and in rural areas it was around 26.5 per cent. Most movement is within the same state, and marriage is the leading reason for women, while employment and the search for work lead men to move.
- Inter-state flows: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar send the largest number of workers to other states, followed by Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, while Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana and Karnataka are the main destinations; seasonal workers from Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh go to brick kilns, construction and farm work.
- Circular migration: a large number of poor workers move for a few months a year and return, and are often not counted in the census, as they are not recorded as migrants at the place of work.
- International: the Gulf countries, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Southeast Asia are the main destinations, as in Indian Diaspora. India also receives migrants and refugees, mostly from Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Tibet and Myanmar.
As an analytical point, the official numbers hide the most precarious group, the seasonal and circular workers in construction and brick kilns, who are in the informal sector and lack documents, housing, portable ration entitlement and social security, which was seen when the national lockdown of March 2020 sent millions on foot to their villages. The new census, with the houselisting and enumeration of 2026 and 2027, should improve data on the reasons for migration, as in India Census 2011 – Key Population Patterns.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Concepts Push and pull asked
- Data Streams and survey figures
- Policy Informal and circular migrants
What Came Next?
The next topic describes the consequences of migration. Next topic: Consequences of Migration.
Key People and Terms
- Push factor Reason to leave
- Pull factor Reason to go
- Immigration Movement into an area
- Emigration Movement out of an area
- Circular migration Repeated back and forth movement
- Refugee Forced cross-border migrant
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- Push = origin; pull = destination.
- Largest stream: rural to rural, mainly women.
- Marriage is the main reason for women.
- Work is the main reason for men.
- PLFS migration rate: 28.9 per cent.
Do Not Confuse With
- Immigration and emigration Into versus out of
- Seasonal and circular migration Part of the year versus repeated cycles
- Migrant and refugee Voluntary versus forced and cross-border
Memory Hook
Push from the village, pull from the city; women marry out, men go for work.
Mains Angle
Questions ask for causes and patterns of migration. These points add depth.
- Causes Economic, social, political, environmental
- Pattern Women marriage, men work
- Gap Circular migrants not counted
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Discuss the major streams and causes of internal migration in India and explain why a large number of migrants are not captured in official data.”
How to Answer
- Types Streams and duration.
- Causes Push and pull.
- Data Census and survey.
- Gap Circular and informal.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What is migration?
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another, from a place of origin to a place of destination, for a permanent, temporary or seasonal stay. It may be within a country, called internal migration, or across national borders, called international migration, and may be voluntary or forced.
What are push and pull factors of migration?
Push factors make the place of origin less attractive, such as unemployment, poverty, conflict, natural disasters and lack of services. Pull factors make the place of destination attractive, such as better jobs and wages, services, security and climate. Migration usually results from a combination of both.
What are the main streams of migration in India?
The main streams are rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to urban and urban to rural. Rural to rural migration is the largest, mainly of women moving after marriage, while rural to urban migration is mostly of men moving for work. Most migration takes place within the same state.
What is the main reason for migration among women in India?
Marriage is the main reason for the migration of women in India, accounting for the large majority of female movements. About 48 per cent of women were migrants in the 2020–21 Periodic Labour Force Survey, mostly for marriage, whereas men mainly migrate for employment and work.
What is circular migration?
Circular migration is the repeated movement of workers between their home and a place of work, usually for part of each year, as with farm labourers and construction workers who go to cities or other states after the harvest and return home. It is often poorly captured in the census and surveys.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Rural to rural is the largest stream of migration in India.
It is dominated by marriage-related movement of women.
2 Pull factors are conditions at the place of origin that drive people away.
Those are push factors.
3 Emigration means moving into a new country.
That is immigration.
4 Seasonal migration is movement for part of the year.
Workers return to their village.
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