Terrestrial Ecosystems: Forest Ecosystem in India, Grasslands, Tundra, Deserts, Mountains
Environment & Ecology › Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems · Topic 4.1
Terrestrial ecosystems are land-based ecosystems, grouped into biomes by climate and vegetation. The main ones are forests, grasslands, tundra, deserts and mountains. Forests are of three broad kinds: tropical (rainforest, deciduous), temperate (broadleaf, coniferous) and boreal or taiga. In India the Forest Survey of India reports forest and tree cover of about 25.17 percent of the country's area in the India State of Forest Report 2023, and the Champion and Seth classification divides Indian forests into 16 major types, such as tropical wet evergreen, tropical dry deciduous, thorn forests, montane temperate and alpine. Grasslands include savanna, steppe, prairie and pampas. Tundra is a cold, treeless biome with permafrost. Deserts receive less than 250 mm of rain a year. Mountain ecosystems show altitudinal zonation.
5 min read · UPSC Prelims · Environment & Ecology · Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems
At a Glance
- Forest cover 25.17 percent, ISFR 2023
- Classification Champion and Seth, 16 types
- Grasslands Savanna, steppe, prairie
- Tundra Cold, permafrost
- Desert Under 250 mm rain
- Exam link UPSC Prelims, Environment & Ecology: Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems
Where Does It Fit?
This is the first topic of the macro on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. It covers the major land biomes, which sets the base for later topics on forest, soil and land resources. Previous topic: Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation. Next topic: Aquatic Ecosystems and Factors Affecting Their Productivity.
What Are the Forest Ecosystems of India?
| Forest type | Features and examples |
|---|---|
| Tropical wet evergreen | Rainfall above 250 cm, dense multi-layered, never leafless. Western Ghats, north-east India, Andaman. Species: mahogany, ebony, rosewood |
| Tropical semi-evergreen | Rainfall 200 to 250 cm, mix of evergreen and deciduous |
| Tropical moist deciduous | Rainfall 100 to 200 cm. Largest share. Sal, teak, sandalwood |
| Tropical dry deciduous | Rainfall 70 to 100 cm. Teak, sal, tendu in peninsular and north India |
| Tropical thorn forest | Rainfall under 70 cm. Babul, khejri, acacia in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan |
| Littoral and swamp forests | Mangroves in coastal tidal areas and deltas such as Sundarbans |
| Montane forests | Subtropical pine, temperate (oak, deodar) and alpine forests in the Himalaya |
What Are Grasslands, Tundra, Deserts and Mountains?
- Grasslands: low to moderate rainfall of 25 to 75 cm; fire and grazing prevent trees; savanna (Africa, with scattered trees), steppe (Eurasia), prairie (North America), pampas (South America), veldt (South Africa). In India: Terai, Banni, and Shivalik grasslands
- Tundra: Arctic and alpine treeless biome; very cold, short growing season, permafrost; mosses, lichens, sedges; reindeer, musk ox, Arctic fox
- Taiga (boreal forest): cold coniferous forest south of tundra; spruce, fir, pine
- Deserts: less than 250 mm rainfall; sparse vegetation; xerophytes; camel, reptiles; hot (Thar, Sahara) and cold (Ladakh, Gobi)
- Mountain ecosystems: altitudinal zonation of vegetation from tropical at base to alpine meadows and snow; Himalayan species such as snow leopard and yak
- Temperate forests: deciduous broadleaf forests of Europe and eastern North America
- Mediterranean scrub: dry summer, wet winter; chaparral
- Human use: agriculture, timber, grazing, mining and tourism
What Else Should You Remember?
- Forest cover in India: ISFR 2023 reports forest cover of 21.76 percent and tree cover of 3.41 percent, a total of 25.17 percent
- Forest Survey of India: Dehradun, publishes the report every two years
- Largest forest area: Madhya Pradesh is largest by area, and Mizoram has the highest share of forest cover
- Forest policy: National Forest Policy, 1988 sets a goal of one-third of area under forest and tree cover
- Biodiversity: tropical rainforests have the highest diversity
- Layers: emergent, canopy, understorey, shrub and ground layers
- Epiphytes and lianas: abundant in rainforests
- Nutrient cycling: fast in the tropics, so soils are poor
- Sal: Shorea robusta, key tree of north and east India
- Teak: Tectona grandis, main tree in Central India
- Deodar: Himalayan cedar of the western Himalaya
- Shola forests: patches of forest and grass in the Western Ghats high hills
- Savanna in India: grass with scattered trees in Deccan and Gujarat
- Great Indian bustard: a grassland bird now critically endangered
- Cold desert: Ladakh and Spiti with snow leopard and Tibetan antelope
- Thar desert: hot desert with blackbuck, chinkara and desert fox
- Permafrost thaw: releases methane and carbon dioxide
- Alpine meadows: bugyals in Uttarakhand
- Grassland neglect: often classed as wasteland, which harms them
- Link: soil and land are in the macro Land, Forest and Soil Resources
- Link to hotspots: see Biodiversity Hotspots
- Terrestrial ecosystems definition: terrestrial ecosystems are those on land, as distinct from aquatic ones
- Mountain zonation example: in the Himalaya, tropical forest at the base gives way to temperate forest, conifers, alpine meadows and snow at the top
- Mangrove cover: India has about 4,992 square km of mangroves according to ISFR 2023
- Carbon store: forests hold most of the carbon on land
- Desertification: land degradation in drylands is covered in the land resources macro
Why Does It Matter for the Exam?
- Forest types: rainfall ranges
- Biomes: tundra, taiga, savanna
- India cover: 25.17 percent
- Current affairs link: ISFR 2023 and grassland conservation
- Common errors: mixing the rainfall limits or saying deserts have no life
As an analytical point, forests and grasslands store carbon and water, but grasslands and drylands get less attention. Protecting all terrestrial biomes, not only forests, is vital for biodiversity and climate action.
Why Is This Topic Important?
- Forests 16 types
- Biomes Tundra to desert
- Value Carbon, water
What Came Next?
The next topic covers aquatic ecosystems and the factors affecting their productivity. Next topic: Aquatic Ecosystems and Factors Affecting Their Productivity.
Key People and Terms
- Biome Large climatic ecosystem
- Savanna Tropical grassland with scattered trees
- Taiga Boreal conifer forest
- Permafrost Permanently frozen ground
- Zonation Vegetation bands with altitude
- Shola Montane forest patch
Exam Corner
Points to Remember
- India forest and tree cover: 25.17 percent (ISFR 2023).
- Wet evergreen rainfall above 250 cm.
- Desert rainfall under 250 mm.
- Champion and Seth: 16 types.
- National Forest Policy: 1988, goal one-third area.
Do Not Confuse With
- Taiga and tundra Conifer forest versus treeless plain
- Savanna and steppe Tropical versus temperate grassland
- Forest cover and tree cover Dense land cover versus trees outside forests
Memory Hook
Wet evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous, thorn: rainfall steps down.
Mains Angle
Questions ask for forest types, rainfall and biomes. These points help.
- Forests Types
- Other biomes Grass, tundra
- Policy Cover
A Question You May Face
An original practice question, not a past paper question.
“Describe the major terrestrial biomes and the forest types of India with their distribution.”
How to Answer
- Biomes List.
- Indian forests Types.
- Distribution Regions.
- Policy Cover.
GS Relevance
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the main terrestrial ecosystems?
The main terrestrial ecosystems are forests, grasslands, deserts, tundra and mountain ecosystems. They are classed as biomes according to their climate and typical vegetation. Forests include tropical, temperate and boreal types, and each biome has characteristic plants and animals adapted to its temperature and rainfall.
How many forest types are there in India according to Champion and Seth?
Champion and Seth classified the forests of India in 1968 into 16 major types based on climate and vegetation, from tropical wet evergreen forests to alpine scrub. The types are determined mainly by rainfall and temperature, and they include dry deciduous, thorn, mangrove and Himalayan montane forests.
What is the forest cover of India?
According to the India State of Forest Report 2023, forest cover in India is 21.76 percent and tree cover 3.41 percent of the geographical area, together 25.17 percent. The report is released by the Forest Survey of India every two years, and the National Forest Policy 1988 aims to bring one-third of the area under forest and tree cover.
What is tundra?
Tundra is a cold, treeless biome found in the Arctic and on high mountains, with a very short growing season and permanently frozen subsoil called permafrost. Its vegetation is mosses, lichens, sedges and dwarf shrubs, and animals include reindeer, musk ox and Arctic fox. Thawing of permafrost releases greenhouse gases.
What are the types of tropical grasslands?
Tropical grasslands are called savanna, with scattered trees and tall grass in Africa, Australia and parts of India, and have a wet and dry season. Temperate grasslands have different names in different continents, such as steppe in Eurasia, prairie in North America, pampas in South America and veldt in South Africa.
PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis
1 Tropical wet evergreen forests receive rainfall above 250 cm.
Found in the Western Ghats.
2 Tundra has dense tall trees.
It is treeless.
3 Pampas are grasslands of South America.
Prairies are in North America.
4 India's forest and tree cover is about 25 percent.
As per ISFR 2023.
Past Mains Questions on This Topic
This topic comes under Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems. UPSC Mains questions asked on the matching syllabus topic, year-wise with marks:
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