Maarg Manthan · Topic 18.6

Montreal Protocol and the Kigali Agreement

Environment & Ecology › International Environmental Governance and Conventions · Topic 18.6

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was adopted on 16 September 1987 under the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) and entered into force on 1 January 1989. It sets binding schedules for phasing out the production and consumption of ozone depleting substances such as CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, HCFCs and methyl bromide, with more time for developing countries (Article 5 parties) and financial help from the Multilateral Fund (set up in 1991). It has been amended and adjusted several times (London 1990, Copenhagen 1992, Montreal 1997, Beijing 1999) and in 2009 became the first treaty ratified by every UN member state. The Kigali Amendment, adopted on 15 October 2016 at Kigali, Rwanda, and in force from 1 January 2019, extends the Protocol to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which do not harm the ozone layer but are strong greenhouse gases. Developed countries began cutting HFCs in 2019; China and most developing countries freeze in 2024; India and a few others (Group 2) freeze in 2028 and reach about 85 percent reduction by 2047. The amendment could avoid up to 0.5 degrees Celsius of warming by 2100. India ratified Kigali in 2021.

5 min read · UPSC Prelims · Environment & Ecology · International Environmental Governance and Conventions

At a Glance

Montreal Protocol 16 September 1987
In force 1 January 1989
Kigali adopted 15 October 2016
Kigali in force 1 January 2019
India freeze 2028
Exam link UPSC Prelims, Environment & Ecology: International Environmental Governance and Conventions

Where Does It Fit?

This topic follows the Stockholm Conference and presents the most successful international environmental agreement. It builds on earlier topics on ozone depletion, HCFCs and India’s ODS rules. Previous topic: United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference, 1972). Next topic: Earth Summit – United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992.

What Are the Key Features of the Montreal Protocol and Kigali Amendment?

Treaty step	Details
Vienna Convention, 1985	Framework treaty to protect the ozone layer; no binding limits
Montreal Protocol, 1987	Binding phase-out schedules for ODS; entered into force 1 January 1989
London Amendment, 1990	Added more substances and set up the Multilateral Fund
Copenhagen, 1992	Accelerated phase-out and added HCFCs and methyl bromide
Montreal and Beijing, 1997 and 1999	Licensing system and controls on trade
Universal ratification	All UN member states ratified by 2009; the first treaty to do so
Kigali Amendment, 2016	Phase-down of HFCs; in force 1 January 2019

How Does the HFC Phase-Down Work?

Group 1 (developed countries): begin cuts in 2019; 85 percent cut by 2036
Group 1 (most developing countries including China): freeze in 2024; 80 percent cut by 2045
Group 2 (India, Pakistan, Iran, Gulf states): freeze in 2028; 85 percent cut by 2047
India’s steps: 10 percent cut by 2032, 20 percent by 2037, 30 percent by 2042 and 85 percent by 2047 against a baseline
Climate gain: could avoid up to about 0.5 C of warming by 2100
Financing: Multilateral Fund supports developing countries
Energy efficiency: cooling can be made more efficient while phasing down HFCs
India’s ratification: September 2021

What Else Should You Remember?

Montreal Protocol adopted: at Montreal, 16 September 1987; World Ozone Day marks this date
Kofi Annan: called it perhaps the single most successful international agreement
CFC production: phased out in developed countries by 1996 and developing countries by 2010
Multilateral Fund: set up 1991, finances conversion in developing countries
Implementing agencies: UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO and the World Bank
Non-compliance procedure: a mechanism to help parties meet obligations
Trade measures: bans on trade in controlled substances with non-parties
Scientific panels: Scientific, Environmental Effects and Technology and Economic Assessment Panels
Ozone recovery: Antarctic ozone expected to recover by about 2066
Avoided warming: the Protocol itself avoided large greenhouse gas emissions as CFCs are potent
HFC use: in refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosols and foams
HFC GWP: hundreds to thousands of times CO2
HFC-23: a by-product with a very high GWP
Alternatives: hydrocarbons, ammonia, CO2 and low-GWP HFOs
Indian action: India Cooling Action Plan, 2019, targets lower cooling demand and more efficient refrigerants
India’s ODS Rules: updated to implement HFC phase-down
Industry: Indian firms have started to use hydrocarbon refrigerants
US ratification: the United States ratified Kigali in 2022
Grandfathering: baseline years for HFCs differ by group
Kigali location: Kigali, Rwanda, at the 28th Meeting of the Parties
Link to previous: see United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference, 1972)
Link to next: see Earth Summit – United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992
Link to ODS rules: see Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules
Caution: HFC steps and baseline details should be checked in the Protocol text and national notifications
Exam hint: remember the two treaty dates, universal ratification and the three HFC groups
Hydrofluorocarbons: HFCs replaced CFCs and HCFCs but are potent greenhouse gases, which led to Kigali
Compliance record: parties have largely met their phase-out targets, with the Multilateral Fund aiding developing countries
Future issues: illegal trade in ODS and HFCs, and recovery of banked refrigerants in old equipment, remain challenges

Why Does It Matter for the Exam?

Protocol: 1987
Kigali: 2016
India freeze: 2028
Current affairs link: HFC phase-down
Common errors: saying Kigali controls ozone-depleting gases

As an analytical point, the Montreal Protocol worked because it had clear schedules, a fund to help poorer countries, trade measures and substitutes for industry. Kigali tries to replicate this success for climate, since HFCs are strong greenhouse gases.

Why Is This Topic Important?

Model Success treaty
Tool Fund, schedules
Kigali Climate gain

What Came Next?

The next topic covers the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Next topic: Earth Summit – United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992.

Key People and Terms

ODS Ozone depleting substance
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
Article 5 Developing country group
MLF Multilateral Fund
HFO Hydrofluoroolefin
MOP Meeting of the Parties

Exam Corner

Points to Remember

Montreal: 16 September 1987.
Kigali: 15 October 2016.
Kigali in force: 2019.
India freeze: 2028.
Universal ratification: 2009.

Do Not Confuse With

Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol Framework versus binding limits
HCFCs and HFCs Ozone-depleting versus non-depleting greenhouse gases
Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol Ozone versus climate treaty

Memory Hook

Eighty-seven binds the ODS, sixteen at Kigali trims HFC; India freezes in twenty-eight.

Mains Angle

Questions ask for dates and steps. These points help.

Montreal Success
Kigali HFC
India Schedule

A Question You May Face

An original practice question, not a past paper question.

“Explain the Montreal Protocol and the Kigali Amendment and their significance for global environmental governance.”

How to Answer

Montreal ODS phase-out.
Success Fund, trade.
Kigali HFC.
India 2028.

GS Relevance

Prelims: dates, amendments, HFC steps. GS Paper 3: global ozone and climate agreements.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the Montreal Protocol?

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international treaty adopted on 16 September 1987 under the Vienna Convention. It sets binding schedules to phase out chemicals that damage the ozone layer, such as CFCs, halons and HCFCs, and is widely seen as the most successful environmental treaty, with ratification by every UN member state.

What is the Kigali Amendment?

The Kigali Amendment, adopted on 15 October 2016 in Kigali, Rwanda, and in force since 1 January 2019, adds a schedule to phase down hydrofluorocarbons under the Montreal Protocol. HFCs do not deplete ozone but are strong greenhouse gases, and the amendment could avoid up to about 0.5 degrees Celsius of global warming by 2100.

What is India's HFC phase-down schedule?

India is in a group of countries that will freeze HFC consumption in 2028, then cut it in steps: 10 percent by 2032, 20 percent by 2037, 30 percent by 2042 and 85 percent by 2047 from the baseline. India ratified the Kigali Amendment in 2021 and has updated its rules for ozone-depleting substances to cover HFCs.

What is the Multilateral Fund?

The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol, set up in 1991, provides financial and technical help to developing countries so they can phase out ozone depleting substances, and now HFCs. Projects are carried out through UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO and the World Bank, and the Fund has supported many Indian industries to convert technology.

Why is the Montreal Protocol considered a success?

It had clear schedules, strong science, a fund for developing countries, trade measures against non-parties, and cost-effective alternatives for industry. It achieved universal ratification and phased out about 99 percent of ozone depleting substances, so the ozone layer is expected to recover around the middle of this century, and it has also avoided large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions.

PYQ Practice — Statement Analysis

1 The Montreal Protocol was adopted in 1987.

True

Under the Vienna Convention.

2 The Kigali Amendment deals with CFCs.

False

It deals with HFCs.

3 India freezes HFC consumption in 2028.