The Maratha Military Landscapes of India is a serial cultural World Heritage property comprising 12 major fortifications that represent the extraordinary fortification and military system developed by the Maratha rulers from the late 17th century to the early 19th century CE. These forts are strategically distributed across coastal, island, hill, and plateau terrains, collectively forming an integrated defence network rather than isolated monuments.
| Term | Meaning / Significance |
|---|---|
| Serial Property | A UNESCO site comprising multiple component parts (here, 12 forts) that together meet Outstanding Universal Value criteria |
| OUV | Outstanding Universal Value — the threshold criterion for UNESCO World Heritage inscription |
| Giri-Durg | Hill fort — most common type; uses natural elevation for defence (e.g., Raigad, Shivneri) |
| Jala-Durg | Water / Island fort — built on islands, surrounded by sea (e.g., Sindhudurg, Khanderi) |
| Hindavi Swarajya | "Self-rule of the Hindu people" — the political ideology behind Shivaji's fort-building campaign |
| Swarajya | Self-rule; the political vision the forts embodied and protected |
| Machi | Projecting terraces in Maratha forts, often triple-layered, for fallback firing lines |
| Devdi | Multi-tier gateways combining descent shafts and staggered angles for maximum defence |
| Balekilla | Inner citadel/watch tower — the innermost defensive structure of a Maratha fort |
| Ashtapradhan | Council of Eight Ministers formed by Shivaji for governance of the Maratha Kingdom |
| Fort Type | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Hill Fort (Giri-Durg) | Built on rugged hilltops, integrating with Sahyadri terrain | Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Rajgad, Gingee |
| Hill-Forest Fort | Hilltop fort surrounded by dense forest for natural camouflage | Pratapgad |
| Hill-Plateau Fort | Situated on a plateaued hill, controlling plateau trade routes | Panhala |
| Coastal Fort | Located along shoreline to control Arabian Sea trade lanes | Vijaydurg |
| Island Fort (Jala-Durg) | Built on islands surrounded by Arabian Sea; naval defence | Khanderi, Suvarnadurg, Sindhudurg |
Maharashtra has more than 390 forts in total. Of these, only 12 were selected for the Maratha Military Landscapes UNESCO nomination. 8 forts are under ASI protection; 4 forts are under the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra.
Students often state that all 12 forts are in Maharashtra. Wrong! 11 forts are in Maharashtra and 1 fort (Gingee) is in Tamil Nadu. UPSC specifically asks about this in statement-based questions.
| Article / Provision | Content | Relevance to Maratha Landscapes |
|---|---|---|
| Art. 49 | State shall protect monuments, places and objects of national importance from spoilation, disfigurement, destruction | Mandates government conservation of the 12 forts as monuments of national importance |
| Art. 51A(f) | Fundamental Duty — every citizen shall value and preserve the rich heritage of India's composite culture | Constitutional obligation of every Indian to protect forts like Raigad, Shivneri, Gingee |
| Art. 253 | Parliament has power to make any law for implementing international treaties and conventions | India's ratification of the 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention legally backed by Art. 253 |
| List I, Entry 67 | Union List — ancient and historical monuments declared of national importance | Gives Parliament/ASI authority over ASI-protected forts |
| List III, Entry 40 | Concurrent List — archaeological sites and remains other than those declared of national importance | Explains state (Maharashtra) jurisdiction over 4 non-ASI forts |
| Act / Convention | Year | Key Provision |
|---|---|---|
| Ancient Monuments & Archaeological Sites & Remains Act | 1958 | Defines and protects monuments of national importance; empowers ASI; amended 2010 to create National Monument Authority (NMA) |
| Antiquities and Art Treasures Act | 1972 | Controls movement and export of cultural antiquities; applies to objects found at the 12 forts |
| UNESCO World Heritage Convention | 1972 | Adopted 16 Nov 1972; India ratified in 1977; 196 countries have ratified; creates World Heritage List and World Heritage Fund |
| National Monument Authority (NMA) | 2010 (via amendment) | Recommends grading/classifying protected monuments; oversees competent authorities; key oversight body for ASI-protected forts |
| Swadesh Darshan Scheme 2.0 | Revamped 2022 | Tourism development at heritage destinations; proposed 158-km "Maratha Fort Circuit" of ₹485 crore |
India joined the UNESCO World Heritage Convention in 1977. As a member of the World Heritage Committee (2021–2025), India can nominate only one site per year for consideration. The WHC has 21 member States elected by the General Assembly of States Parties.
The UNESCO Convention was adopted on 16 November 1972, NOT 1977. India ratified it in 1977. Students confuse the adoption year with India's ratification year — UPSC often tests this distinction.
Maratha fort-building evolved across three distinct phases, spanning from the consolidation of Shivaji's power in the 1630s to the fall of the Maratha Confederacy to the British East India Company in 1818.
| Country | UNESCO WHS | Criteria | Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| India | Maratha Military Landscapes (12 forts) | (iv), (vi) | 2025 |
| Germany / UK (shared) | Frontiers of the Roman Empire (Hadrian's Wall etc.) | (ii), (iii), (iv) | 1987–2021 |
| Portugal | Garrison Border Town of Elvas (fortifications) | (iv) | 2012 |
| India (earlier) | Hill Forts of Rajasthan (6 forts) | (ii), (iii) | 2013 |
| Oman | Aflaj Irrigation Systems (5 components) | (v) | 2006 |
Gingee Fort in Tamil Nadu's Villupuram district spans three hills — Krishnagiri, Rajagiri, and Chandrayandurg. British colonial administrators nicknamed it the "Troy of the East"; Indian tourism calls it the "Great Wall of South India."
| Custodian | Forts (8) |
|---|---|
| Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) | Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg, Gingee |
| Directorate of Archaeology & Museums, Govt. of Maharashtra | Salher, Rajgad, Khanderi, Pratapgad |
| Financial Year | Budget Allocated |
|---|---|
| 2022–23 | ₹15.35 Crore |
| 2023–24 | ₹15.56 Crore |
| 2024–25 | ₹12.58 Crore |
| 2025–26 (Shivneri alone) | ₹1.65 Crore (as of March 2026) |
| Category | Count (2025) | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Cultural | 35 | Taj Mahal, Ajanta, Ellora, Maratha Military Landscapes |
| Natural | 7 | Western Ghats, Sundarbans, Kaziranga |
| Mixed | 1 | Khangchendzonga National Park |
| Total | 44 | — |
The Maratha Military Landscapes inscription was preceded by Moidams of Charaideo, Assam — India's 43rd UNESCO WHS, inscribed at the 46th WHC Session held in New Delhi in 2024. India hosted the 46th WHC — a rare privilege.
| Fort | State | Type | Custodian | Unique Fact / Key Role |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Salher | Maharashtra | Hill Fort | State (Maharashtra) | One of highest forts in Western Ghats (~1,400 m); site of Battle of Salher (1672) — rare open-field Maratha victory |
| Shivneri | Maharashtra | Hill Fort | ASI | Birthplace of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (19 Feb 1630); has 7 successive gates, Shivai Devi temple, rock-cut water tanks |
| Lohgad | Maharashtra | Hill Fort | ASI | Distinctive "Vinchu Kata" (scorpion-tail) rampart; Shivaji stored Surat raid loot here; captured in 1648 |
| Khanderi | Maharashtra | Island Fort | State (Maharashtra) | Built 1679 by Shivaji in Arabian Sea (5 km off coast); positioned between British Bombay and Siddhi Janjira |
| Raigad | Maharashtra | Hill Fort | ASI | Capital of Maratha Empire; Shivaji's coronation (6 June 1674) & Samadhi here; built by Hiroji Indulkar |
| Rajgad | Maharashtra | Hill Fort | State (Maharashtra) | First Maratha capital (till 1670); at ~1,300 m; triple-layered Sanjivani Machi for fallback firing |
| Pratapgad | Maharashtra | Hill-Forest Fort | State (Maharashtra) | Site of killing of Afzal Khan (1659); Bhavani temple here — sword gifted by goddess to Shivaji (cultural legend) |
| Suvarnadurg | Maharashtra | Island Fort | ASI | India's earliest known dry-dock — tidal basin cut in laterite, lined with lime-jaggery mortar; once linked to mainland fort Kanakadurga |
| Panhala | Maharashtra | Hill-Plateau Fort | ASI | Largest fort in the Deccan; Teen Darwaza has Bahamani-era architectural features; Shivaji escaped siege here (1660) |
| Vijaydurg | Maharashtra | Coastal Fort | ASI | "Eastern Gibraltar"; base of Admiral Kanhoji Angre's Maratha Navy; 3-layer walls; originally built by Raja Bhoja II (12th century) |
| Sindhudurg | Maharashtra | Island Fort | ASI | Built 1664–67 on Khurte Island by Shivaji; only fort with a temple to Shivaji (consecrated 1695); concealed entrance; freshwater wells inside |
| Gingee | Tamil Nadu | Hill Fort | ASI | Only fort outside Maharashtra; "Troy of the East"; temporary Maratha capital (Rajaram, 1690s); spans 3 hills in Villupuram district |
Gingee is located in Villupuram district, Tamil Nadu, spread across three hills — Krishnagiri, Rajagiri and Chandrayandurg. Captured by Maratha Subedar Harji Rajemahadik under Shivaji in 1677. French missionaries praised its fortifications. Called "Troy of the East" by British administrators and "Great Wall of South India" by Indian tourism.
Sindhudurg was built over 3 years with the help of thousands of workers. Chief engineer Hiroji Indulkar poured molten lead into 3 km of seam joints — an early anti-seismic measure. The fort has a hidden main gate and freshwater wells despite being surrounded by seawater.
UPSC sometimes asks to match forts with their types. Pratapgad is NOT a plain hill fort — it is a Hill-Forest fort. Panhala is a Hill-Plateau fort. Do not club all non-island forts under "Hill Fort."
| Feature | Description | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Terrain Integration | Forts designed in harmony with natural contours; no two have the same layout | Reflects Shivaji's dictum: "One fort is equal to an army" — maximum deterrence, minimal garrison |
| Devdi (Multi-tier Gates) | Staggered gateways with descent shafts; hidden main entrances | Sindhudurg's concealed gate is invisible from sea; Shivneri has 7 successive gates |
| Machi (Projecting Terraces) | Triple-layered projecting terraces for fallback firing lines | Rajgad's Sanjivani Machi exemplifies this — allows defending a smaller force to retreat and re-engage |
| Balekilla (Inner Citadel) | Innermost fortified zone; last line of defence | Present in most hill forts; houses command centre, temple and water storage |
| Secret Tunnels | Underground passages connecting forts or escape routes | Vijaydurg's 200 m under-sea passage; Suvarnadurg's link to mainland Kanakadurga (now collapsed) |
| Water Management | Rock-cut tanks, cisterns, terracotta pipes, in-fort wells | Freshwater wells inside Sindhudurg (an island fort); Shivneri's pillared water tanks |
| Dry Dock | Tidal basin cut in laterite rock, lined with lime-jaggery mortar | Suvarnadurg has India's oldest known dry-dock — resists chloride attack better than pure lime |
| Construction Materials | Basalt (Deccan trap flows, 180–220 MPa compressive strength); laterite for coastal forts | Lime-jaggery composite mortar at coastal forts resists saline water erosion |
| Bastion Names | Bastions personified with cultural names (Padmavati, Sidhi) | Embeds cultural memory into martial spaces; forts as living cultural landscapes |
| Topkhana (Artillery) | Dedicated artillery platforms at each fort | Standard garrison: 400–600 infantry, 40 topkhana gunners, 30 cavalry scouts |
In 1756, the British detected a 200-metre rope-mine stretched across the Waghotan River at Vijaydurg — an early anti-ship device using coconut-fibre hawsers. This represents one of the earliest documented naval mine-like defence systems in India.
UPSC in Art and Culture asks about specific unique features of Indian monuments. For Maratha forts, the examiners test: (a) fort types, (b) Shivneri as birthplace vs Raigad as coronation site, (c) Gingee's Tamil Nadu location, (d) UNESCO criteria numbers. Do NOT confuse Criteria (iv) + (vi) with other cultural criteria (i), (ii), (iii).
| Concept | Article / Act / Body | Connection to Maratha Military Landscapes |
|---|---|---|
| Heritage Protection (State Duty) | Article 49 | Obliges government to protect the 12 forts from spoliation |
| Fundamental Duties | Article 51A(f) | Every Indian citizen must value and preserve the composite cultural heritage embodied by the forts |
| Legislative Power — Heritage | Art. 253 + List I Entry 67 | Parliament's power to implement UNESCO Convention and protect national monuments |
| Concurrent Jurisdiction | List III Entry 40 | Explains why 4 forts are under Maharashtra state government rather than ASI |
| Archaeological Protection | AMASR Act 1958 | Primary domestic law protecting 8 of the 12 ASI-managed forts |
| Antiquities Export Control | Antiquities & Art Treasures Act 1972 | Prevents removal of artefacts from fort sites |
| World Heritage Framework | UNESCO 1972 Convention; India ratified 1977 | International legal framework for inscription; 196 State Parties; WHC of 21 members |
| Tourism Development | Swadesh Darshan 2.0 | 158-km Maratha Fort Circuit; ₹485 crore proposed; sustainable heritage tourism |
| ICOMOS | International Council on Monuments and Sites | France-based NGO; evaluated the Maratha nomination; conducted on-site mission Oct 2024 |
| Intangible Heritage | UNESCO 2003 Intangible Heritage Convention | Powada ballads, Mardani Khel, Bhavani shrines at forts recognised as living OUV layers |
| Rank | Country | Total WHS |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Italy | 61 |
| 2 | China | 60 |
| 3 | Germany | 55 |
| 4 | France | 54 |
| 5 | Spain | 50 |
| 6 | India | 44 |
| 7 (tied) | Mexico / UK | 35 |
UPSC 2024 Prelims asked: "Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO." — a statement-based question. For 2026, expect Maratha Military Landscapes to appear similarly: matching forts with states/types or identifying correct UNESCO criteria numbers. Criteria (iv) + (vi) is the confirmed combination for the final inscription.
ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites, France) — evaluates cultural sites · IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) — evaluates natural sites · ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, Rome) — training and conservation advice. All three advise the World Heritage Committee.
The Maratha Military Landscapes of India were officially inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List on 11 July 2025 at the 47th Session of the World Heritage Committee held in Paris. The nomination received support from 18 of 20 State Parties present. PM Narendra Modi, Union Culture Minister Gajendra Singh Shekhawat, and Maharashtra CM Devendra Fadnavis congratulated the nation. India described this as a milestone in cultural diplomacy.
The ASI (Mumbai Circle) has been allocated conservation funds across three consecutive years: ₹15.35 Crore (2022–23), ₹15.56 Crore (2023–24), ₹12.58 Crore (2024–25). Following the UNESCO inscription, Culture Minister Shekhawat launched a Site Management Plan to convert the 12 forts into world-class sustainable tourism hubs. "Namo Tourism Centres" are planned at Shivneri, Raigad, Pratapgad and Salher.
As of March 2026, the Shivneri Site Management Plan has allocated ₹1.65 Crore for 2025–26 for conservation of Shivneri Fort alone. A ropeway project has been authorised (post Heritage Impact Assessment) to make Shivneri accessible for senior citizens and differently-abled visitors. A phased plan — Short-term (2 years), Mid-term (5 years), Long-term (10 years) — is underway for structural repairs, digital integration, and community involvement.
Under Swadesh Darshan 2.0, a 158-km "Maratha Fort Circuit" has been proposed with an estimated budget of ₹485 crore for last-mile roads, heritage hostels, and artisan hubs. Ministry of Tourism data indicates every ₹1 crore in fort restoration creates 97 direct and 240 indirect jobs — mostly stone-cutters, guides, and homestay operators. A pilot Adopt-a-Bastion programme at Lohgad funds lime-mortar workshops for local masons.
The Sahyadri Giribhraman Sanstha has proposed a "Shivteerth Yatra" — a pilgrimage circuit connecting all 12 UNESCO-inscribed forts, inspired by the Jyotirlinga circuit. The yatra would operate via specially designed MSRTC buses, and the Junnar bus depot is proposed to be rebuilt in heritage style. This initiative aims to improve access especially for women and rural visitors.
During the 47th WHC Session, ICOMOS had initially recommended deferral of India's nomination, stating it "fails to convincingly demonstrate how the dozen geographically scattered forts" form a unified property. However, India's technical delegations and diplomatic support overrode the recommendation — the WHC voted in favour with 18 of 20 members supporting inscription. This overriding of ICOMOS recommendation was notable in UNESCO proceedings.
The 43rd WHS (Moidams of Charaideo, Assam) was inscribed at the 46th WHC Session in New Delhi (2024) — a session India hosted as WHC member (2021–25). The 44th WHS (Maratha Military Landscapes) was inscribed at the 47th WHC Session in Paris (2025). UPSC may ask about the serial order: 43rd = Moidams, 44th = Maratha Military Landscapes.
| Statement | ✅/❌ | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| The Maratha Military Landscapes comprises 12 forts, all located in Maharashtra. | ❌ | 11 are in Maharashtra, 1 (Gingee) is in Tamil Nadu |
| The inscription was done at the 47th Session of the World Heritage Committee in Paris in July 2025. | ✅ | Correct — 47th WHC, Paris, 11 July 2025 |
| UNESCO World Heritage Convention was adopted in 1977. | ❌ | Convention adopted 16 November 1972; India ratified it in 1977 |
| Raigad Fort served as the first capital of the Maratha Empire. | ❌ | Rajgad was the first capital (till 1670); Raigad became capital after coronation in 1674 |
| The Maratha Military Landscapes were nominated under Criteria (ii) and (v). | ❌ | Nominated under Criteria (iv) and (vi); not (ii) or (v) |
| Shivneri Fort is the birthplace of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. | ✅ | Shivaji was born at Shivneri Fort on 19 February 1630 |
| The nomination was led by the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra. | ❌ | Nomination led by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), not the state directorate |
| India joined the World Heritage Convention in 1972. | ❌ | Convention was adopted in 1972; India ratified (joined) in 1977 |
| Pratapgad is classified as a Hill-Forest Fort under the Maratha Military Landscapes. | ✅ | Correct classification — surrounded by dense forest |
| With 44 sites, India now ranks 4th globally in UNESCO World Heritage Sites. | ❌ | India ranks 6th globally (after Italy, China, Germany, France, Spain) |
The official final inscription used Criteria (iv) and (vi). Some early PIB documents mentioned Criteria (iii) and others, but the confirmed final UNESCO criteria are (iv) + (vi). Do not write (ii), (iii), or (v) in the exam.
Rajgad was the first Maratha capital (used till 1670). Raigad became the capital after Shivaji's coronation in 1674. Students frequently write "Raigad was always the capital" — it was not the FIRST capital.
Only 8 of 12 forts are under ASI. The remaining 4 (Salher, Rajgad, Khanderi, Pratapgad) are under the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra. Students assume all 12 are under ASI — this is wrong and UPSC tests it.
ICOMOS (the cultural advisory body) initially recommended deferral of India's nomination. The WHC overrode this and inscribed it anyway. Students may think ICOMOS recommended inscription — it did not. This makes the 2025 inscription particularly notable.
The 43rd WHS = Moidams of Charaideo (Assam) — inscribed at 46th WHC, New Delhi, 2024. The 44th WHS = Maratha Military Landscapes — inscribed at 47th WHC, Paris, 2025. UPSC may ask which was the immediately preceding Indian site.
Prelims questions appear as: (1) Statement-based — "Which of the following statements is/are correct about the Maratha Military Landscapes?" (2) Matching pairs — Fort name ↔ Fort type ↔ State (3) Current affairs hook — "India's 44th UNESCO WHS is located in which states?" (4) Serial order — What was India's 43rd / 44th / next WHS?
| Fort | Type | State | Custodian | Exam-Worthy Fact |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Salher | Hill | MH | State | Highest (~1,400m); Battle of Salher 1672 |
| Shivneri | Hill | MH | ASI | Birthplace of Shivaji (19 Feb 1630); 7 gates |
| Lohgad | Hill | MH | ASI | Vinchu Kata (scorpion-tail) rampart |
| Khanderi | Island | MH | State | Built 1679; between British Bombay & Siddhi Janjira |
| Raigad | Hill | MH | ASI | Maratha capital; Coronation 6 June 1674; Shivaji's Samadhi |
| Rajgad | Hill | MH | State | First Maratha capital (till 1670); 1,300 m; Sanjivani Machi |
| Pratapgad | Hill-Forest | MH | State | Afzal Khan killed here (1659); Bhavani temple |
| Suvarnadurg | Island | MH | ASI | India's oldest dry-dock; tidal basin + lime-jaggery |
| Panhala | Hill-Plateau | MH | ASI | Largest fort in Deccan; Shivaji's escape from siege (1660) |
| Vijaydurg | Coastal | MH | ASI | Eastern Gibraltar; Kanhoji Angre's naval base; 3 wall layers |
| Sindhudurg | Island | MH | ASI | Built 1664–67; temple to Shivaji (1695); hidden entrance |
| Gingee | Hill | TN | ASI | Troy of the East; Villupuram; Rajaram's temp. capital (1690s) |
For UPSC 2026 Prelims (24 May 2026), Maratha Military Landscapes is almost certain to appear — inscribed just 10 months before the exam. Memorise: (1) 44th WHS, (2) 11 July 2025, (3) 47th WHC Session Paris, (4) 11+1 state split, (5) Criteria (iv)+(vi), (6) ASI=8, State=4, (7) Preceding WHS = Moidams (43rd, 2024), (8) India = Rank 6 globally.